Manganese Removel

Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations

كتاب عمليات محطات معالجة المياه والصرف الصحي 

من الكتب المميزة فى مجال محطات المياه 

حيث يتحدث عن طرق معالجة المياه والصرف الصحي والحسابات الخاصة بهم 

وما يميز الكتاب انه غني بالأمثلة على كل مقطع.

موضوعات الكتاب :

Chapter 1 Current Issues in Water and Wastewater Treatment Operations............................................................................. 3 1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 3 1.2 Sick Water..................................................................................................................................................... 3 1.3 Publicly Owned Treatment Works: Cash Cows or Cash Dogs? ................................................................... 5 1.4 The Paradigm Shift ...................................................................................................................................... 6 1.4.1 A Change in the Way Things Are Understood and Done............................................................. 6 1.5 Multiple-Barrier Concept ............................................................................................................................. 8 1.5.1 Multiple-Barrier Approach and Wastewater Operations............................................................... 8 1.6 Management Problems Facing Water and Wastewater Operations.............................................................. 9 1.6.1 Compliance with New, Changing, and Existing Regulations....................................................... 9 1.6.2 Privatization and/or Reengineering............................................................................................. 11 1.6.3 Benchmarking ............................................................................................................................. 12 1.6.3.1 What Benchmarking Is ......................................................................................... 13 1.6.3.2 Potential Results of Benchmarking....................................................................... 13 1.6.3.3 Targets................................................................................................................... 13 1.6.3.4 Benchmarking Process.......................................................................................... 13 1.6.3.5 Benchmarking Steps ............................................................................................. 13 1.6.3.6 Collection of Baseline Data and Tracking Energy Use......................................... 14 1.6.3.7 Baseline Audit ....................................................................................................... 15 1.6.4 Technical vs. Professional Management ..................................................................................... 17 1.6.5 Energy Conservation Measures and Sustainability..................................................................... 18 1.6.5.1 Sustainable Water/Wastewater Infrastructure....................................................... 19 1.6.5.2 Maintaining Sustainable Infrastructure ................................................................ 19 1.6.5.3 Water/Wastewater Infrastructure Gap................................................................... 20 1.6.5.4 Energy Efficiency: Water/Wastewater Treatment Operations............................... 20 Chapter Review Questions.................................................................................................................................... 20 References and Recommended Reading ............................................................................................................... 21 Chapter 2 Water/Wastewater Operators................................................................................................................................. 23 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 23 2.2 Setting the Record Straight ........................................................................................................................ 24 2.3 Computer-Literate Jack or Jill .................................................................................................................... 24 2.4 Plant Operators as Emergency Responders................................................................................................ 25 2.5 Operator Duties, Numbers, and Working Conditions................................................................................ 25 2.6 Operator Certification and Licensure......................................................................................................... 26 Chapter Review Questions.................................................................................................................................... 27 References and Suggested Readings..................................................................................................................... 27 vi Contents Chapter 3 Upgrading Security ............................................................................................................................................... 29 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 29 3.2 Consequences of 9/11 ................................................................................................................................. 29 3.3 Security Hardware/Devices........................................................................................................................ 31 3.3.1 Physical Asset Monitoring and Control Devices ........................................................................ 31 3.3.1.1 Aboveground Outdoor Equipment Enclosures...................................................... 31 3.3.1.2 Alarms................................................................................................................... 32 3.3.1.3 Backflow Prevention Devices................................................................................ 33 3.3.1.4 Barriers.................................................................................................................. 34 3.3.1.5 Biometric Security Systems.................................................................................. 36 3.3.1.6 Card Identification/Access/Tracking Systems....................................................... 37 3.3.1.7 Fences.................................................................................................................... 38 3.3.1.8 Films for Glass Shatter Protection ........................................................................ 39 3.3.1.9 Fire Hydrant Locks ............................................................................................... 39 3.3.1.10 Hatch Security....................................................................................................... 39 3.3.1.11 Intrusion Sensors................................................................................................... 40 3.3.1.12 Ladder Access Control.......................................................................................... 40 3.3.1.13 Locks..................................................................................................................... 40 3.3.1.14 Manhole Intrusion Sensors.................................................................................... 41 3.3.1.15 Manhole Locks...................................................................................................... 41 3.3.1.16 Radiation Detection Equipment for Monitoring Personnel and Packages............ 41 3.3.1.17 Reservoir Covers................................................................................................... 42 3.3.1.18 Security for Side-Hinged Doors............................................................................ 42 3.3.1.19 Valve Lockout Devices.......................................................................................... 43 3.3.1.20 Security for Vents.................................................................................................. 44 3.3.1.21 Visual Surveillance Monitoring............................................................................ 44 3.3.2 Water Monitoring Devices.......................................................................................................... 45 3.3.2.1 Sensors for Monitoring Chemical, Biological, and Radiological Contamination 45 3.3.2.2 Chemical Sensors: Arsenic Measurement System................................................ 46 3.3.2.3 Chemical Sensor: Adapted BOD Analyzer........................................................... 46 3.3.2.4 Chemical Sensor: Total Organic Carbon Analyzer............................................... 46 3.3.2.5 Chemical Sensors: Chlorine Measurement System .............................................. 47 3.3.2.6 Chemical Sensors: Portable Cyanide Analyzer .................................................... 47 3.3.2.7 Portable Field Monitors to Measure VOCs........................................................... 48 3.3.2.8 Radiation Detection Equipment ............................................................................ 48 3.3.2.9 Radiation Detection Equipment for Monitoring Water Assets............................. 49 3.3.2.10 Toxicity Monitoring/Toxicity Meters.................................................................... 50 3.3.3 Communication and Integration.................................................................................................. 50 3.3.3.1 Electronic Controllers ........................................................................................... 50 3.3.3.2 Two-Way Radios.................................................................................................... 50 3.3.3.3 Wireless Data Communications............................................................................ 51 3.3.4 Cyber Protection Devices............................................................................................................ 51 3.3.4.1 Antivirus and Pest-Eradication Software.............................................................. 51 3.3.4.2 Firewalls................................................................................................................ 52 3.3.4.3 Network Intrusion Hardware and Software .......................................................... 52 3.4 SCADA....................................................................................................................................................... 53 3.4.1 What Is SCADA? ........................................................................................................................ 54 3.4.2 SCADA Applications in Water/Wastewater Systems ................................................................. 54 3.4.3 SCADA Vulnerabilities............................................................................................................... 54 3.4.4 Increasing Risk............................................................................................................................ 56 3.4.5 Adoption of Technologies with Known Vulnerabilities.............................................................. 56 3.4.6 Cyber Threats to Control Systems.............................................................................................. 57 3.4.7 Securing Control Systems........................................................................................................... 57 3.4.8 Steps to Improve SCADA Security............................................................................................. 58 Chapter Review Questions.................................................................................................................................... 61 References and Recommended Reading ............................................................................................................... 61 Contents vii Chapter 4 Energy Conservation Measures and Sustainability............................................................................................... 63 4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 63 4.2 Pumping System Energy Conservation Measures...................................................................................... 63 4.2.1 Pumping System Design ............................................................................................................. 64 4.2.2 Pump Motors............................................................................................................................... 65 4.2.2.1 Motor Efficiency and Efficiency Standards .......................................................... 66 4.2.2.2 Motor Management Programs............................................................................... 66 4.2.2.3 Innovative and Emerging Technologies................................................................ 67 4.2.3 Power Factor................................................................................................................................ 67 4.2.4 Variable Frequency Drives.......................................................................................................... 69 4.2.4.1 Energy Savings...................................................................................................... 69 4.2.4.2 Applications........................................................................................................... 69 4.2.4.3 Strategies for Wastewater Pumping Stations......................................................... 69 4.3 Design and Control of Aeration Systems ................................................................................................... 69 4.3.1 ECMs for Aeration Systems........................................................................................................ 70 4.3.1.1 ECMs for Diffused Aeration Systems................................................................... 70 4.3.1.2 ECMs for Mechanical Aerators ............................................................................ 72 4.3.2 Control of the Aeration Process.................................................................................................. 72 4.3.2.1 Automated DO Control ......................................................................................... 72 4.3.3 Emerging Technologies Using Control Parameters Other than DO ........................................... 85 4.3.3.1 Respirometry......................................................................................................... 85 4.3.3.2 Mass Balance and Measuring Plant Performance................................................. 85 4.3.3.3 Critical Oxygen Point Control Determination ...................................................... 86 4.3.3.4 Off-Gas Analysis................................................................................................... 86 4.3.4 Innovative and Emerging Control Strategies for Biological Nitrogen Removal......................... 86 4.3.4.1 SymBio® ................................................................................................................ 86 4.3.4.2 Bioprocess Intelligent Optimization System (BIOS) ............................................ 87 4.4 Blowers....................................................................................................................................................... 87 4.4.1 High-Speed Gearless (Turbo) Blowers........................................................................................ 89 4.4.2 Single-Stage Centrifugal Blowers with Inlet Guide Vanes and Variable Diffuser Vanes.......... 89 4.4.3 New Diffuser Technology ........................................................................................................... 90 4.4.3.1 Fine Bubble Aeration............................................................................................. 90 4.4.3.2 Fine Bubble Aeration Application Examples........................................................ 90 4.4.4 Preventing Diffuser Fouling........................................................................................................ 91 4.5 Innovative and Emerging Energy Conservation Measures........................................................................ 91 4.5.1 UV Disinfection .......................................................................................................................... 92 4.5.1.1 Design.................................................................................................................... 93 4.5.1.2 Operation and Maintenance .................................................................................. 94 4.5.2 Membrane Bioreactors................................................................................................................ 94 4.5.3 Anoxic and Anaerobic Zone Mixing .......................................................................................... 95 4.5.3.1 Hyperbolic Mixing................................................................................................ 95 4.5.3.2 Pulsed Large Bubble Mixing ................................................................................ 96 Chapter Review Question...................................................................................................................................... 97 References and Recommended Reading ............................................................................................................... 97 Chapter 5 Water/Wastewater References, Models, and Terminology.................................................................................... 99 5.1 Setting the Stage......................................................................................................................................... 99 5.2 Treatment Process Models.......................................................................................................................... 99 5.2.1 Additional Wastewater Treatment Models.................................................................................. 99 5.2.1.1 Green Bay, Wisconsin, Metropolitan Sewerage District....................................... 99 5.2.1.2 Sheboygan, Michigan, Regional Wastewater Treatment Plant.............................101 5.2.1.3 Big Gulch Wastewater Treatment Plant .............................................................. 102 5.2.1.4 City of Bartlett, Tennessee, Wastewater Treatment Plant................................... 103 5.2.1.5 Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission Western Branch WWTP, Prince Georges County, Maryland...................................................................... 104 viii Contents 5.2.1.6 San Jose/Santa Clara, California, Water Pollution Control Plant ....................... 105 5.2.1.7 Waco, Texas, Metropolitan Area Regional Sewer System Wastewater Treatment Facility .................................................... 107 5.3 Key Terms, Acronyms, and Abbreviations Used in Water and Wastewater Operations.......................... 108 5.3.1 Definitions................................................................................................................................. 109 5.3.2 Acronyms and Abbreviations.....................................................................................................115 Chapter Review Questions...................................................................................................................................116 References and Recommended Reading ..............................................................................................................117 Section II Water/Wastewater Operations: Math, Physics, and Technical Aspects Chapter 6 Water/Wastewater Math Operations ................................................................................................................... 121 6.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 121 6.2 Calculation Steps...................................................................................................................................... 121 6.3 Equivalents, Formulae, and Symbols....................................................................................................... 121 6.4 Basic Water/Wastewater Math Operations............................................................................................... 121 6.4.1 Arithmetic Average (or Arithmetic Mean) and Median............................................................ 121 6.4.2 Units and Conversions............................................................................................................... 124 6.4.2.1 Temperature Conversions.................................................................................... 124 6.4.2.2 Milligrams per Liter (Parts per Million)............................................................. 125 6.4.3 Area and Volume....................................................................................................................... 125 6.4.4 Force, Pressure, and Head......................................................................................................... 125 6.4.5 Flow Conversions...................................................................................................................... 127 6.4.6 Flow Calculations...................................................................................................................... 128 6.4.6.1 Instantaneous Flow Rates ................................................................................... 128 6.4.6.2 Instantaneous Flow into and out of a Rectangular Tank .................................... 128 6.4.6.3 Flow Rate into a Cylindrical Tank...................................................................... 129 6.4.6.4 Flow through a Full Pipeline............................................................................... 129 6.4.6.5 Velocity Calculations .......................................................................................... 129 6.4.6.6 Average Flow Rate Calculations......................................................................... 130 6.4.6.7 Flow Conversion Calculations............................................................................. 130 6.4.7 Detention Time.......................................................................................................................... 130 6.4.8 Hydraulic Detention Time..........................................................................................................131 6.4.8.1 Hydraulic Detention Time in Days.......................................................................131 6.4.8.2 Hydraulic Detention Time in Hours.....................................................................131 6.4.8.3 Hydraulic Detention Time in Minutes .................................................................131 6.4.9 Chemical Dosage Calculations ................................................................................................. 132 6.4.9.1 Dosage Formula Pie Chart .................................................................................. 132 6.4.9.2 Chlorine Dosage.................................................................................................. 132 6.4.9.3 Hypochlorite Dosage........................................................................................... 133 6.4.10 Percent Removal........................................................................................................................ 134 6.4.11 Population Equivalent or Unit Loading Factor ......................................................................... 134 6.4.12 Specific Gravity......................................................................................................................... 135 6.4.13 Percent Volatile Matter Reduction in Sludge ............................................................................ 135 6.4.14 Chemical Coagulation and Sedimentation................................................................................ 135 6.4.14.1 Calculating Feed Rate ......................................................................................... 135 6.4.14.2 Calculating Solution Strength ............................................................................. 135 6.4.15 Filtration.................................................................................................................................... 136 6.4.15.1 Calculating the Rate of Filtration........................................................................ 136 6.4.15.2 Filter Backwash................................................................................................... 136 6.4.16 Water Distribution System Calculations................................................................................... 136 6.4.16.1 Water Flow Velocity............................................................................................ 136 6.4.16.2 Storage Tank Calculations................................................................................... 138 6.4.16.3 Distribution System Disinfection Calculations................................................... 138 6.4.17 Complex Conversions................................................................................................................ 139 Contents ix 6.4.17.1 Concentration to Quantity................................................................................... 139 6.4.17.2 Quantity to Concentration................................................................................... 139 6.4.17.3 Quantity to Volume or Flow Rate ....................................................................... 140 6.5 Applied Math Operations......................................................................................................................... 140 6.5.1 Mass Balance and Measuring Plant Performance..................................................................... 140 6.5.2 Mass Balance for Settling Tanks............................................................................................... 140 6.5.3 Mass Balance Using BOD Removal ..........................................................................................141 6.5.4 Measuring Plant Performance....................................................................................................141 6.5.4.1 Plant Performance/Efficiency ............................................................................. 142 6.5.4.2 Unit Process Performance/Efficiency ................................................................. 142 6.5.4.3 Percent Volatile Matter Reduction in Sludge ...................................................... 142 6.6 Water Math Concepts............................................................................................................................... 142 6.6.1 Water Sources and Storage Calculations................................................................................... 142 6.6.2 Water Source Calculations........................................................................................................ 142 6.6.2.1 Well Drawdown................................................................................................... 142 6.6.2.2 Well Yield.............................................................................................................143 6.6.2.3 Specific Yield .......................................................................................................143 6.6.2.4 Well Casing Disinfection .....................................................................................143 6.6.2.5 Deep-Well Turbine Pump Calculations............................................................... 144 6.6.2.6 Vertical Turbine Pumps....................................................................................... 144 6.6.3 Water Storage Calculations....................................................................................................... 144 6.6.4 Copper Sulfate Dosing Calculations......................................................................................... 145 6.6.5 Coagulation and Flocculation Calculations .............................................................................. 145 6.6.5.1 Coagulation ......................................................................................................... 145 6.6.5.2 Flocculation......................................................................................................... 146 6.6.5.3 Coagulation and Flocculation Calculations ........................................................ 146 6.6.6 Chemical Usage Calculations.................................................................................................... 150 6.6.7 Sedimentation Calculations....................................................................................................... 151 6.6.7.1 Calculating Tank Volume.................................................................................... 151 6.6.7.2 Detention Time.................................................................................................... 151 6.6.7.3 Surface Loading Rate.......................................................................................... 151 6.6.7.4 Mean Flow Velocity ............................................................................................ 152 6.6.7.5 Weir Overflow Rate (Weir Loading Rate)........................................................... 152 6.6.7.6 Percent Settled Biosolids..................................................................................... 153 6.6.7.7 Determining Lime Dosage (mg/L)...................................................................... 153 6.6.7.8 Determining Lime Dosage (lb/day)..................................................................... 155 6.6.7.9 Determining Lime Dosage (g/min)..................................................................... 155 6.6.8 Filtration Calculations............................................................................................................... 155 6.6.8.1 Flow Rate through a Filter (gpm)........................................................................ 156 6.6.8.2 Filtration Rate...................................................................................................... 157 6.6.8.3 Unit Filter Run Volume (UFRV)......................................................................... 157 6.6.8.4 Backwash Rate .................................................................................................... 158 6.6.8.5 Backwash Rise Rate ............................................................................................ 159 6.6.8.6 Volume of Backwash Water Required (gal)........................................................ 159 6.6.8.7 Required Depth of Backwash Water Tank (ft).................................................... 159 6.6.8.8 Backwash Pumping Rate (gpm).......................................................................... 160 6.6.8.9 Percent Product Water Used for Backwashing.................................................... 160 6.6.8.10 Percent Mud Ball Volume ................................................................................... 160 6.6.8.11 Filter Bed Expansion............................................................................................161 6.6.9 Water Chlorination Calculations................................................................................................161 6.6.9.1 Chlorine Disinfection...........................................................................................161 6.6.9.2 Determining Chlorine Dosage (Feed Rate) .........................................................161 6.6.9.3 Calculating Chlorine Dose, Demand, and Residual ........................................... 162 6.6.9.4 Calculating Dry Hypochlorite Rate .................................................................... 164 6.6.9.5 Calculating Hypochlorite Solution Feed Rate..................................................... 165 6.6.9.6 Calculating Percent Strength of Solutions........................................................... 165 6.6.9.7 Calculating Percent Strength Using Dry Hypochlorite....................................... 165 x Contents 6.6.10 Chemical Use Calculations....................................................................................................... 166 6.6.11 Fluoridation Calculations.......................................................................................................... 166 6.6.11.1 Water Fluoridation............................................................................................... 166 6.6.11.2 Fluoride Compounds........................................................................................... 166 6.6.11.3 Optimal Fluoride Levels ..................................................................................... 167 6.6.11.4 Fluoridation Process Calculations....................................................................... 168 6.6.12 Water Softening Calculations.................................................................................................... 172 6.6.12.1 Calculating Calcium Hardness as CaCO3 ........................................................... 172 6.6.12.2 Calculating Magnesium Hardness as CaCO3 ...................................................... 172 6.6.12.3 Calculating Total Hardness................................................................................. 172 6.6.12.4 Calculating Carbonate and Noncarbonate Hardness ...........................................173 6.6.12.5 Alkalinity Determination.....................................................................................174 6.6.12.6 Calculation for Removal of Noncarbonate Hardness...........................................174 6.6.12.7 Recarbonation Calculation...................................................................................175 6.6.12.8 Calculating Feed Rates.........................................................................................176 6.6.12.9 Ion-Exchange Capacity ........................................................................................176 6.6.12.10 Water Treatment Capacity................................................................................... 177 6.6.12.11 Treatment Time Calculation (Until Regeneration Required).............................. 177 6.6.12.12 Salt and Brine Required for Regeneration ...........................................................178 6.7 Wastewater Math Concepts.......................................................................................................................178 6.7.1 Preliminary Treatment Calculations..........................................................................................178 6.7.1.1 Screening..............................................................................................................178 6.7.1.2 Grit Removal ....................................................................................................... 179 6.7.2 Primary Treatment Calculations................................................................................................181 6.7.2.1 Process Control ....................................................................................................181 6.7.2.2 Surface Loading Rate (Surface Settling Rate/Surface Overflow Rate) .............. 182 6.7.2.3 Weir Overflow Rate (Weir Loading Rate)........................................................... 182 6.7.2.4 BOD and Suspended Solids Removed (lb/day)................................................... 182 6.7.3 Trickling Filter Process Calculations........................................................................................ 183 6.7.3.1 Hydraulic Loading .............................................................................................. 183 6.7.3.2 Organic Loading Rate ......................................................................................... 184 6.7.3.3 Recirculation Flow .............................................................................................. 184 6.7.4 Rotating Biological Contactor Calculations.............................................................................. 184 6.7.4.1 Hydraulic Loading Rate ...................................................................................... 185 6.7.4.2 Soluble BOD........................................................................................................ 185 6.7.4.3 Organic Loading Rate ......................................................................................... 186 6.7.4.4 Total Media Area................................................................................................. 186 6.7.5 Activated Biosolids Calculations............................................................................................... 186 6.7.5.1 Moving Averages................................................................................................. 186 6.7.5.2 BOD or COD Loading ........................................................................................ 187 6.7.5.3 Solids Inventory .................................................................................................. 187 6.7.5.4 Food-to-Microorganism Ratio (F/M Ratio) ........................................................ 187 6.7.5.5 Gould Sludge Age ............................................................................................... 189 6.7.5.6 Mean Cell Residence Time ................................................................................. 189 6.7.5.7 Estimating Return Rates from SSV60 .................................................................. 190 6.7.5.8 Sludge Volume Index .......................................................................................... 190 6.7.5.9 Mass Balance: Settling Tank Suspended Solids ..................................................191 6.7.5.10 Biosolids Waste Based on Mass Balance .............................................................191 6.7.5.11 Oxidation Ditch Detention Time..........................................................................191 6.7.6 Treatment Ponds Calculations................................................................................................... 192 6.7.6.1 Treatment Pond Parameters ................................................................................ 192 6.7.6.2 Treatment Pond Process Control......................................................................... 192 6.7.6.3 Hydraulic Detention Time (Days) ....................................................................... 192 6.7.6.4 BOD Loading ...................................................................................................... 193 6.7.6.5 Organic Loading Rate ......................................................................................... 193 6.7.6.6 BOD Removal Efficiency.................................................................................... 193 Contents xi 6.7.6.7 Population Loading ............................................................................................. 193 6.7.6.8 Hydraulic Loading (In./Day) (Overflow Rate).................................................... 193 6.7.7 Chemical Dosing Calculations.................................................................................................. 193 6.7.7.1 Chemical Feed Rate ............................................................................................ 194 6.7.7.2 Chlorine Dose, Demand, and Residual............................................................... 194 6.7.7.3 Hypochlorite Dosage........................................................................................... 195 6.7.8 Chemical Solution Calculations................................................................................................ 196 6.7.8.1 Solution Chemical Feeder Setting (gpd)............................................................. 196 6.7.8.2 Chemical Feed Pump: Percent Stroke Setting .................................................... 197 6.7.8.3 Chemical Solution Feeder Setting (mL/min)...................................................... 197 6.7.8.4 Chemical Feed Calibration.................................................................................. 197 6.7.8.5 Average Use......................................................................................................... 198 6.7.8.6 Process Residuals: Biosolids Production and Pumping ...................................... 199 6.7.8.7 Primary and Secondary Solids Production......................................................... 199 6.7.8.8 Primary Clarifier Solids Production ................................................................... 199 6.7.8.9 Secondary Clarifier Solids Production................................................................ 199 6.7.8.10 Percent Solids......................................................................................................200 6.7.8.11 Biosolids Pumping ..............................................................................................200 6.7.8.12 Biosolids Thickening........................................................................................... 201 6.7.8.13 Centrifuge Thickening ........................................................................................ 203 6.7.8.14 Biosolids Digestion/Stabilization........................................................................ 203 6.7.8.15 Aerobic Digestion Process Control ..................................................................... 203 6.7.8.16 Anaerobic Digestion Process Control ................................................................. 204 6.7.9 Biosolids Dewatering and Disposal Calculations ..................................................................... 205 6.7.9.1 Pressure Filtration ............................................................................................... 206 6.7.9.2 Plate and Frame Press......................................................................................... 206 6.7.9.3 Belt Filter Press................................................................................................... 206 6.7.9.4 Rotary Vacuum Filter Dewatering ...................................................................... 208 6.7.9.5 Sand Drying Beds ............................................................................................... 209 6.7.10 Biosolids Disposal Calculations.................................................................................................210 6.7.10.1 Land Application..................................................................................................210 6.7.10.2 Biosolids to Compost........................................................................................... 212 6.7.10.3 Composting Calculations.................................................................................... 212 6.8 Water/Wastewater Laboratory Calculations............................................................................................. 212 6.8.1 Faucet Flow Estimation............................................................................................................. 212 6.8.2 Service Line Flushing Time...................................................................................................... 213 6.8.3 Composite Sampling ................................................................................................................. 213 6.8.4 Biochemical Oxygen Demand....................................................................................................214 6.8.4.1 BOD5 (Unseeded).................................................................................................214 6.8.4.2 BOD5 (Seeded) .................................................................................................... 215 6.8.4.3 BOD 7-Day Moving Average .............................................................................. 215 6.8.5 Moles and Molarity ................................................................................................................... 215 6.8.5.1 Moles................................................................................................................... 215 6.8.5.2 Normality .............................................................................................................216 6.8.6 Settleability (Activated Biosolids)..............................................................................................216 6.8.7 Settleable Solids.........................................................................................................................216 6.8.8 Biosolids Total Solids, Fixed Solids, and Volatile Solids ..........................................................217 6.8.9 Wastewater Suspended Solids and Volatile Suspended Solids ..................................................218 6.8.10 Biosolids Volume Index and Biosolids Density Index ...............................................................218 Chapter Review Questions...................................................................................................................................219 References and Suggested Reading..................................................................................................................... 229 Chapter 7 Science Fundamentals......................................................................................................................................... 231 7.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 231 7.2 Force and Motion...................................................................................................................................... 231 xii Contents 7.2.1 Position and Time...................................................................................................................... 231 7.2.2 Speed and Velocity.................................................................................................................... 231 7.3 Acceleration.............................................................................................................................................. 233 7.3.1 Acceleration of Gravity ............................................................................................................. 233 7.4 Force ......................................................................................................................................................... 233 7.5 Newton’s Laws of Motion......................................................................................................................... 234 7.5.1 Newton’s First Law.................................................................................................................... 234 7.5.2 Newton’s Second Law ............................................................................................................... 234 7.5.3 Newton’s Third Law.................................................................................................................. 234 7.6 Work ......................................................................................................................................................... 234 7.7 Energy....................................................................................................................................................... 235 7.7.1 Potential Energy ........................................................................................................................ 235 7.7.2 Kinetic Energy .......................................................................................................................... 235 7.8 Momentum ............................................................................................................................................... 235 7.9 Circular Motion ........................................................................................................................................ 236 7.10 Angular Motion ........................................................................................................................................ 236 7.11 Angular Velocity ...................................................................................................................................... 236 7.12 Angular Acceleration ............................................................................................................................... 237 7.13 Torque....................................................................................................................................................... 237 7.14 Angular Momentum................................................................................................................................. 237 7.15 Gravity...................................................................................................................................................... 237 7.16 Thermal Properties................................................................................................................................... 237 7.16.1 Specific Heat ............................................................................................................................. 238 7.17 States of Matter ........................................................................................................................................ 238 7.17.1 Gas Laws................................................................................................................................... 238 7.17.2 Liquids and Solutions................................................................................................................ 238 7.18 Wave Motion and Sound........................................................................................................................... 239 7.18.1 Waves......................................................................................................................................... 239 7.18.1.1 Wave Characteristics........................................................................................... 239 7.18.1.2 Transverse and Longitudinal Waves ................................................................... 239 7.18.2 Physics of Sound ....................................................................................................................... 239 7.18.2.1 Octave Bands.......................................................................................................240 7.18.2.2 Sound Pressure ....................................................................................................240 7.19 Light.......................................................................................................................................................... 241 7.19.1 Speed of Light ........................................................................................................................... 241 7.19.2 Sources of Light ........................................................................................................................ 241 7.19.3 Luminous Intensity of Light...................................................................................................... 241 7.19.4 Laws of Reflection and Refraction ............................................................................................ 242 7.19.4.1 Laws of Reflection............................................................................................... 242 7.19.4.2 Laws of Refraction .............................................................................................. 242 7.19.5 Polarization ............................................................................................................................... 243 7.20 Color......................................................................................................................................................... 243 Chapter Review Questions.................................................................................................................................. 243 Chapter 8 Blueprint Reading ............................................................................................................................................... 245 8.1 Blueprints: The Universal Language........................................................................................................ 245 8.1.1 Blueprint Standards................................................................................................................... 246 8.1.1.1 Standards-Setting Organizations ........................................................................ 246 8.1.1.2 ANSI Standards for Blueprint Sheets.................................................................. 246 8.1.2 Finding Information .................................................................................................................. 247 8.1.2.1 Detail Drawings .................................................................................................. 247 8.1.2.2 Assembly Drawings............................................................................................. 247 8.1.3 Title Block ................................................................................................................................. 247 8.1.4 Drawing Notes........................................................................................................................... 250 8.1.4.1 General Notes...................................................................................................... 250 8.1.4.2 Local Notes ......................................................................................................... 250 Contents xiii 8.2 Units of Measurement .............................................................................................................................. 252 8.2.1 Fractions and Decimal Fractions .............................................................................................. 252 8.3 Alphabet of Lines..................................................................................................................................... 253 8.3.1 Just a Bunch of Drawn Lines?................................................................................................... 253 8.3.2 Visible Lines.............................................................................................................................. 254 8.3.3 Hidden Lines............................................................................................................................. 254 8.3.4 Section Lines............................................................................................................................. 254 8.3.5 Center Lines.............................................................................................................................. 254 8.3.6 Dimension and Extension Lines................................................................................................ 254 8.3.7 Leaders...................................................................................................................................... 254 8.3.8 Cutting Plane or Viewing Plane Lines...................................................................................... 254 8.3.9 Break Lines ............................................................................................................................... 254 8.3.10 Phantom Lines........................................................................................................................... 256 8.3.11 Line Gauge ................................................................................................................................ 256 8.3.12 Views......................................................................................................................................... 256 8.3.12.1 Orthographic Projections.................................................................................... 256 8.3.12.2 One-View Drawings............................................................................................ 259 8.3.12.3 Two-View Drawings............................................................................................ 259 8.3.12.4 Three-View Drawings......................................................................................... 259 8.3.12.5 Auxiliary Views.................................................................................................. 260 8.4 Dimensions and Shop Notes..................................................................................................................... 262 8.4.1 Dimensioning ............................................................................................................................ 262 8.4.2 Decimal and Size Dimensions.................................................................................................. 262 8.4.3 Definition of Dimensioning Terms............................................................................................ 263 8.4.3.1 Nominal Size....................................................................................................... 263 8.4.3.2 Basic Size ............................................................................................................ 263 8.4.3.3 Allowance............................................................................................................ 263 8.4.3.4 Design Size.......................................................................................................... 263 8.4.3.5 Limits .................................................................................................................. 263 8.4.3.6 Tolerance ............................................................................................................. 264 8.4.3.7 Datum.................................................................................................................. 264 8.4.4 Types of Dimensions................................................................................................................. 264 8.4.4.1 Linear Dimensions.............................................................................................. 264 8.4.4.2 Angular Dimensions ........................................................................................... 264 8.4.4.3 Reference Dimensions......................................................................................... 265 8.4.4.4 Tabular Dimensions............................................................................................. 265 8.4.4.5 Arrowless Dimensions ........................................................................................ 265 8.4.5 Shop Notes................................................................................................................................. 265 8.5 Machine Drawings ................................................................................................................................... 266 8.5.1 Centrifugal Pump Drawing....................................................................................................... 266 8.5.1.1 Centrifugal Pump Attributes............................................................................... 266 8.5.1.2 How a Centrifugal Pump Works......................................................................... 266 8.5.1.3 Centrifugal Pump Components........................................................................... 267 8.5.2 Packing Gland Drawing ............................................................................................................ 267 8.5.3 Submersible Pump Drawing...................................................................................................... 267 8.5.4 Turbine Pump Drawing............................................................................................................. 268 8.6 Sheet Metal Drawings.............................................................................................................................. 268 8.6.1 Sheet Metal................................................................................................................................ 268 8.6.2 Dimension Calculations ............................................................................................................ 268 8.6.2.1 Calculations for Allowances in Bend.................................................................. 268 8.6.2.2 Set-Back Table..................................................................................................... 268 8.6.2.3 Formulae Used to Determine Developed Length ............................................... 269 8.6.3 Hems and Joints ........................................................................................................................ 270 8.7 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Drawings......................................................................................................... 270 8.7.1 Standard Hydraulic System....................................................................................................... 270 8.7.2 Standard Pneumatic System...................................................................................................... 271 8.7.3 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems: Similarities and Differences............................................. 271 xiv Contents 8.7.4 Types of Hydraulic and Pneumatic Drawings........................................................................... 271 8.7.5 Graphic Symbols for Fluid Power Systems............................................................................... 272 8.7.5.1 Symbols for Methods of Operation (Controls).................................................... 272 8.7.5.2 Symbols for Rotary Devices................................................................................ 272 8.7.5.3 Symbols for Lines ............................................................................................... 272 8.7.5.4 Symbols for Valves.............................................................................................. 272 8.7.5.5 Symbols for Miscellaneous Units........................................................................ 274 8.7.6 Supplementary Information Accompanying Graphic Drawings .............................................. 274 8.7.6.1 Sequence of Operations....................................................................................... 274 8.7.6.2 Solenoid Chart..................................................................................................... 274 8.7.6.3 Bill of Materials .................................................................................................. 275 8.8 Welding Blueprints and Symbols............................................................................................................. 275 8.8.1 Welding Processes..................................................................................................................... 275 8.8.2 Types of Welded Joints.............................................................................................................. 276 8.8.2.1 Butt Joints............................................................................................................ 276 8.8.2.2 Lap Joints ............................................................................................................ 276 8.8.2.3 Tee Joints............................................................................................................. 276 8.8.2.4 Edge Joints .......................................................................................................... 276 8.8.2.5 Corner Joints ....................................................................................................... 276 8.8.3 Basic Weld Symbols.................................................................................................................. 276 8.8.3.1 Symbols for Arc and Gas Welds......................................................................... 276 8.8.3.2 Symbols for Resistance Welds ............................................................................ 276 8.8.3.3 Symbols for Supplementary Welds..................................................................... 277 8.8.4 The Welding Symbol................................................................................................................. 277 8.8.4.1 Reference Line .................................................................................................... 277 8.8.4.2 Arrowhead........................................................................................................... 277 8.8.4.3 Weld Symbol ....................................................................................................... 278 8.8.4.4 Dimensions.......................................................................................................... 278 8.8.4.5 Special Symbols.................................................................................................. 279 8.8.4.6 Tail....................................................................................................................... 280 8.9 Electrical Drawings.................................................................................................................................. 280 8.9.1 Troubleshooting and Electrical Drawings................................................................................. 280 8.9.2 Electrical Symbols .................................................................................................................... 280 8.9.2.1 Electrical Voltage and Power .............................................................................. 280 8.9.2.2 What Is Voltage? ................................................................................................. 280 8.9.2.3 How Is Voltage Produced? .................................................................................. 281 8.9.2.4 How Is Electricity Delivered to the Plant?.......................................................... 281 8.9.2.5 Electric Power ..................................................................................................... 281 8.9.2.6 Types of Electrical Drawings.............................................................................. 281 8.9.2.7 Types of Architectural Drawings........................................................................ 282 8.9.2.8 Circuit Drawings................................................................................................. 282 8.9.2.9 Ladder Drawing................................................................................................... 283 8.10 AC&R Drawings ...................................................................................................................................... 284 8.10.1 Refrigeration.............................................................................................................................. 284 8.10.1.1 Basic Principles of Refrigeration......................................................................... 284 8.10.1.2 Refrigeration System Components...................................................................... 284 8.10.1.3 Refrigeration System Operation.......................................................................... 284 8.10.1.4 Using Refrigeration Drawings in Troubleshooting ............................................. 285 8.10.1.5 Refrigeration Component Drawings ................................................................... 286 8.10.2 Air Conditioning ....................................................................................................................... 286 8.10.2.1 Operation of a Simple Air Conditioning System ................................................ 286 8.10.1.2 Design of Air Conditioning Systems .................................................................. 287 8.10.1.3 Air Conditioning Drawings................................................................................. 287 8.11 Schematics and Symbols.......................................................................................................................... 287 8.11.1 How to Use Schematic Diagrams.............................................................................................. 288 8.11.2 Schematic Circuit Layout.......................................................................................................... 288 8.11.3 Schematic Symbols ................................................................................................................... 289 Contents xv 8.11.3.1 Lines on a Schematic........................................................................................... 289 8.11.3.2 Lines Connect Symbols....................................................................................... 289 8.11.4 Schematic Diagram: An Example............................................................................................. 289 8.11.4.1 A Schematic by Any Other Name Is a Line Diagram......................................... 289 8.11.5 Schematics and Troubleshooting............................................................................................... 291 8.12 Electrical Schematics ............................................................................................................................... 291 8.12.1 Electrical Symbols .................................................................................................................... 292 8.12.1.1 Schematic Lines .................................................................................................. 292 8.12.1.2 Electrical System Power Supplies....................................................................... 292 8.12.1.3 Electronics Power Supplies................................................................................. 293 8.12.1.4 Electrical Loads................................................................................................... 294 8.12.1.5 Switches............................................................................................................... 294 8.12.1.6 Inductors (Coils).................................................................................................. 295 8.12.1.7 Transformers ....................................................................................................... 295 8.12.1.8 Fuses.................................................................................................................... 295 8.12.1.9 Circuit Breakers................................................................................................... 295 8.12.1.10 Electrical Contacts .............................................................................................. 296 8.12.1.11 Resistors .............................................................................................................. 296 8.12.2 Reading Plant Schematics......................................................................................................... 296 8.13 General Piping Systems and System Schematics..................................................................................... 298 8.13.1 Piping Systems.......................................................................................................................... 299 8.13.2 Joints.......................................................................................................................................... 299 8.13.2.1 Screwed Joints..................................................................................................... 299 8.13.2.2 Welded Joints....................................................................................................... 299 8.13.2.3 Flanged Joints...................................................................................................... 299 8.13.2.4 Bell-and-Spigot Joints......................................................................................... 299 8.13.2.5 Soldered Joints.....................................................................................................300 8.13.2.6 Joints and Fitting Symbols..................................................................................300 8.13.3 Valves........................................................................................................................................300 8.13.3.1 Valves: Definition and Function..........................................................................300 8.13.3.2 Valve Construction.............................................................................................. 301 8.13.4 Types of Valves ......................................................................................................................... 301 8.13.4.1 Ball Valve ............................................................................................................ 301 8.13.4.2 Cock Valves......................................................................................................... 302 8.13.4.3 Gate Valves.......................................................................................................... 302 8.13.4.4 Globe Valves........................................................................................................ 302 8.13.4.5 Check Valves....................................................................................................... 303 8.14 Hydraulic and Pneumatic System Schematic Symbols............................................................................ 303 8.14.1 Fluid Power Systems................................................................................................................. 303 8.14.2 Symbols Used for Hydraulic and Pneumatic Components....................................................... 304 8.14.3 AC&R System Schematic Symbols........................................................................................... 304 8.14.4 Schematic Symbols Used in Refrigeration Systems ................................................................. 305 8.14.4.1 Refrigeration Piping Symbols............................................................................. 305 8.14.4.2 Refrigeration Fittings Symbols ........................................................................... 305 8.14.4.3 Refrigeration Valve Symbols............................................................................... 305 8.14.4.4 Refrigeration Accessory Symbols....................................................................... 306 8.14.4.5 Refrigeration Component Symbols..................................................................... 306 8.14.4.5 Schematic Symbols Used in AC&R Air Distribution System ............................ 306 Chapter Review Questions.................................................................................................................................. 307 References and Suggested Reading..................................................................................................................... 308 Chapter 9 Water Hydraulics................................................................................................................................................. 309 9.1 What Is Water Hydraulics?....................................................................................................................... 309 9.2 Basic Concepts ......................................................................................................................................... 309 9.2.1 Stevin’s Law ...............................................................................................................................310 9.3 Density and Specific Gravity.....................................................................................................................311 xvi Contents 9.4 Force and Pressure.....................................................................................................................................312 9.4.1 Hydrostatic Pressure...................................................................................................................312 9.4.2 Effects of Water under Pressure.................................................................................................313 9.5 Head...........................................................................................................................................................313 9.5.1 Static Head .................................................................................................................................314 9.5.2 Friction Head..............................................................................................................................314 9.5.3 Velocity Head .............................................................................................................................314 9.5.4 Total Dynamic Head (Total System Head) ................................................................................314 9.5.5 Pressure and Head......................................................................................................................314 9.5.6 Head and Pressure......................................................................................................................314 9.6 Flow and Discharge Rates: Water in Motion.............................................................................................314 9.6.1 Area and Velocity.......................................................................................................................315 9.6.2 Pressure and Velocity.................................................................................................................316 9.7 Piezometric Surface and Bernoulli’s Theorem .........................................................................................316 9.7.1 Conservation of Energy..............................................................................................................316 9.7.2 Energy Head...............................................................................................................................316 9.7.3 Piezometric Surface ...................................................................................................................316 9.7.4 Head Loss...................................................................................................................................317 9.7.5 Hydraulic Grade Line.................................................................................................................317 9.7.6 Bernoulli’s Theorem...................................................................................................................317 9.7.7 Bernoulli’s Equation...................................................................................................................318 9.8 Well and Wet Well Hydraulics ..................................................................................................................319 9.8.1 Well Hydraulics..........................................................................................................................319 9.8.2 Wet Well Hydraulics.................................................................................................................. 320 9.9 Friction Head Loss ................................................................................................................................... 320 9.9.1 Flow in Pipelines....................................................................................................................... 320 9.9.2 Major Head Loss....................................................................................................................... 321 9.9.3 Calculating Major Head Loss.................................................................................................... 322 9.9.4 C Factor..................................................................................................................................... 322 9.9.5 Slope.......................................................................................................................................... 323 9.9.6 Minor Head Loss....................................................................................................................... 323 9.10 Basic Piping Hydraulics ........................................................................................................................... 323 9.10.1 Piping Networks........................................................................................................................ 323 9.11 Open-Channel Flow ................................................................................................................................. 324 9.11.1 Characteristics of Open-Channel Flow..................................................................................... 325 9.11.1.1 Laminar and Turbulent Flow............................................................................... 325 9.11.1.2 Uniform and Varied Flow ................................................................................... 325 9.11.1.3 Critical Flow........................................................................................................ 325 9.11.2 Parameters Used in Open-Channel Flow.................................................................................. 325 9.11.2.1 Hydraulic Radius................................................................................................. 325 9.11.2.2 Hydraulic Depth .................................................................................................. 326 9.11.2.3 Slope.................................................................................................................... 326 9.11.3 Open-Channel Flow Calculations............................................................................................. 326 9.12 Flow Measurement ................................................................................................................................... 327 9.12.1 Flow Measurement the Old-Fashioned Way ............................................................................. 328 9.12.2 Basis of Traditional Flow Measurement ................................................................................... 328 9.12.3 Flow Measuring Devices........................................................................................................... 328 9.12.3.1 Differential Pressure Flowmeters........................................................................ 329 9.12.3.2 Magnetic Flowmeters...........................................................................................331 9.12.3.3 Ultrasonic Flowmeters.........................................................................................331 9.12.3.4 Velocity Flowmeters............................................................................................ 332 9.12.3.5 Positive-Displacement Flowmeters..................................................................... 333 9.12.4 Open-Channel Flow Measurement ........................................................................................... 333 9.12.4.1 Weirs.................................................................................................................... 334 9.12.4.2 Flumes................................................................................................................. 335 Chapter Review Questions.................................................................................................................................. 335 References and Recommended Readings............................................................................................................ 336 Contents xvii Chapter 10 Fundamentals of Electricity ................................................................................................................................ 337 10.1 Nature of Electricity ................................................................................................................................. 338 10.2 Structure of Matter................................................................................................................................... 338 10.3 Conductors, Semiconductors, and Insulators........................................................................................... 340 10.4 Static Electricity ....................................................................................................................................... 340 10.4.1 Charged Bodies......................................................................................................................... 340 10.4.2 Coulomb’s Law.......................................................................................................................... 341 10.4.3 Electrostatic Fields.................................................................................................................... 341 10.5 Magnetism................................................................................................................................................ 341 10.5.1 Magnetic Materials ................................................................................................................... 342 10.5.2 Magnetic Earth.......................................................................................................................... 343 10.6 Difference in Potential.............................................................................................................................. 343 10.6.1 Water Analogy........................................................................................................................... 343 10.6.2 Principal Methods for Producing a Voltage .............................................................................. 344 10.7 Current...................................................................................................................................................... 344 10.8 Resistance ................................................................................................................................................. 345 10.9 Battery-Supplied Electricity..................................................................................................................... 345 10.9.1 Voltaic Cell................................................................................................................................ 345 10.9.2 Primary and Secondary Cells................................................................................................... 346 10.9.3 Battery....................................................................................................................................... 346 10.9.4 Battery Operation...................................................................................................................... 346 10.9.5 Combining Cells........................................................................................................................ 346 10.9.6 Types of Batteries...................................................................................................................... 347 10.9.6.1 Dry Cell............................................................................................................... 347 10.9.6.2 Lead–Acid Battery .............................................................................................. 347 10.9.6.3 Alkaline Cell....................................................................................................... 348 10.9.6.4 Nickel–Cadmium Cell......................................................................................... 348 10.9.6.5 Mercury Cell ....................................................................................................... 348 10.9.7 Battery Characteristics.............................................................................................................. 348 10.10 Simple Electrical Circuit .......................................................................................................................... 348 10.10.1 Schematic Representations........................................................................................................ 349 10.11 Ohm’s Law................................................................................................................................................ 350 10.12 Electrical Power.........................................................................................................................................351 10.12.1 Electrical Power Calculations ................................................................................................... 352 10.13 Electrical Energy (Kilowatt-Hours).......................................................................................................... 352 10.14 Series DC Circuit Characteristics............................................................................................................. 353 10.14.1 Series Circuit Resistance........................................................................................................... 353 10.14.2 Series Circuit Current................................................................................................................ 354 10.14.3 Series Circuit Voltage................................................................................................................ 354 10.14.4 Series Circuit Power.................................................................................................................. 355 10.14.5 Summary of the Rules for Series DC Circuits.......................................................................... 356 10.14.6 General Series Circuit Analysis................................................................................................ 356 10.14.7 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law........................................................................................................... 357 10.14.8 Polarity of Voltage Drops.......................................................................................................... 357 10.14.9 Series Aiding and Opposing Sources........................................................................................ 358 10.14.10 Kirchhoff’s Law and Multiple Source Solutions....................................................................... 358 10.15 Ground...................................................................................................................................................... 358 10.16 Open and Short Circuits........................................................................................................................... 359 10.17 Parallel DC Circuits ................................................................................................................................. 359 10.17.1 Parallel Circuit Characteristics ................................................................................................. 359 10.17.2 Voltage in Parallel Circuits ....................................................................................................... 359 10.17.3 Current in Parallel Circuits....................................................................................................... 360 10.17.4 Parallel Circuits and Kirchhoff’s Current Law......................................................................... 361 10.17.5 Parallel Circuit Resistance ........................................................................................................ 362 10.17.6 Reciprocal Method.................................................................................................................... 363 10.17.7 Product over the Sum Method................................................................................................... 364 xviii Contents 10.17.8 Reduction to an Equivalent Circuit ........................................................................................... 364 10.17.9 Power in Parallel Circuits.......................................................................................................... 364 10.17.10 Rules for Solving Parallel DC Circuits ..................................................................................... 364 10.18 Series–Parallel Circuits............................................................................................................................ 365 10.18.1 Solving a Series–Parallel Circuit .............................................................................................. 365 10.19 Conductors................................................................................................................................................ 365 10.19.1 Unit Size of Conductors ............................................................................................................ 365 10.19.2 Square Mil................................................................................................................................. 365 10.19.3 Circular Mil............................................................................................................................... 366 10.19.4 Circular-Mil-Foot...................................................................................................................... 366 10.19.5 Resistivity.................................................................................................................................. 367 10.19.6 Wire Measurement.................................................................................................................... 367 10.19.7 Factors Governing the Selection of Wire Size .......................................................................... 368 10.19.8 Copper vs. Other Metal Conductors.......................................................................................... 368 10.19.9 Temperature Coefficient............................................................................................................ 369 10.19.10 Conductor Insulation ................................................................................................................. 369 10.19.11 Conductors, Splices, and Terminal Connections ...................................................................... 369 10.19.12 Soldering Operations................................................................................................................. 370 10.19.13 Solderless Connections.............................................................................................................. 370 10.19.14 Insulating Tape .......................................................................................................................... 370 10.20 Electromagnetism..................................................................................................................................... 370 10.20.1 Magnetic Field around a Single Conductor............................................................................... 370 10.20.2 Polarity of a Single Conductor .................................................................................................. 371 10.20.3 Field around Two Parallel Conductors...................................................................................... 371 10.20.4 Magnetic Field of a Coil............................................................................................................ 372 10.20.5 Polarity of an Electromagnetic Coil.......................................................................................... 372 10.20.6 Strength of an Electromagnetic Field........................................................................................ 372 10.20.7 Magnetic Units.......................................................................................................................... 372 10.20.8 Properties of Magnetic Materials.............................................................................................. 373 10.20.8.1 Permeability ........................................................................................................ 373 10.20.8.2 Hysteresis ............................................................................................................ 373 10.20.9 Electromagnets.......................................................................................................................... 373 10.21 AC Theory................................................................................................................................................ 373 10.21.1 Basic AC Generator................................................................................................................... 374 10.21.2 Cycle.......................................................................................................................................... 374 10.21.3 Frequency, Period, and Wavelength .......................................................................................... 375 10.21.4 Characteristic Values of AC Voltage and Current .................................................................... 376 10.21.5 Peak Amplitude......................................................................................................................... 376 10.21.6 Peak-to-Peak Amplitude ........................................................................................................... 376 10.21.7 Instantaneous Amplitude .......................................................................................................... 376 10.21.8 Effective or RMS Value ............................................................................................................ 377 10.21.9 Average Value............................................................................................................................ 377 10.21.10 Resistance in AC Circuits.......................................................................................................... 377 10.21.11 Phase Relationships................................................................................................................... 378 10.22 Inductance ................................................................................................................................................ 379 10.22.1 Self-Inductance.......................................................................................................................... 380 10.22.2 Mutual Inductance..................................................................................................................... 381 10.22.3 Calculation of Total Inductance ................................................................................................ 381 10.23 Practical Electrical Applications.............................................................................................................. 382 10.23.1 Electrical Power Generation...................................................................................................... 382 10.23.1.1 DC Generators..................................................................................................... 382 10.23.1.2 AC Generators..................................................................................................... 384 10.23.1.3 Motors ................................................................................................................. 384 10.23.1.4 DC Motors........................................................................................................... 384 10.23.1.5 AC Motors........................................................................................................... 385 10.23.2 Transformers ............................................................................................................................. 387 Contents xix 10.23.3 Power Distribution System Protection ...................................................................................... 388 10.23.3.1 Fuses.................................................................................................................... 389 10.23.3.2 Circuit Breakers................................................................................................... 389 10.23.3.3 Control Devices................................................................................................... 389 Chapter Review Questions.................................................................................................................................. 389 References and Suggested Reading..................................................................................................................... 390 Chapter 11 Hydraulic Machines: Pumps............................................................................................................................... 391 11.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 391 11.2 Basic Pumping Calculations..................................................................................................................... 391 11.2.1 Velocity of a Fluid through a Pipeline ...................................................................................... 391 11.2.2 Pressure–Velocity Relationship................................................................................................. 392 11.2.3 Static Head ................................................................................................................................ 392 11.2.3.1 Static Suction Head ............................................................................................. 392 11.2.3.2 Static Suction Lift................................................................................................ 392 11.2.3.3 Static Discharge Head ......................................................................................... 393 11.2.4 Friction Head............................................................................................................................. 393 11.2.5 Velocity Head ............................................................................................................................ 394 11.2.6 Total Head ................................................................................................................................. 394 11.2.7 Conversion of Pressure Head .................................................................................................... 394 11.2.8 Horsepower................................................................................................................................ 394 11.2.8.1 Hydraulic (Water) Horsepower (WHP)............................................................... 395 11.2.8.2 Brake Horsepower (BHP).................................................................................... 395 11.2.9 Specific Speed ........................................................................................................................... 395 11.2.9.1 Suction Specific Speed........................................................................................ 395 11.2.10 Affinity Laws—Centrifugal Pumps.......................................................................................... 396 11.2.11 Net Positive Suction Head ......................................................................................................... 396 11.2.11.1 Calculating NPSHA ............................................................................................ 396 11.2.12 Pumps in Series and Parallel..................................................................................................... 398 11.3 Centrifugal Pumps.................................................................................................................................... 398 11.3.1 Description ................................................................................................................................ 398 11.3.2 Terminology .............................................................................................................................. 399 11.3.3 Pump Theory.............................................................................................................................400 11.3.4 Pump Characteristics ................................................................................................................400 11.3.4.1 Head (Capacity)...................................................................................................400 11.3.4.2 Efficiency.............................................................................................................400 11.3.4.3 Brake Horsepower Requirements........................................................................ 401 11.3.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Centrifugal Pump............................................................... 401 11.3.6 Centrifugal Pump Applications................................................................................................. 402 11.3.7 Pump Control Systems.............................................................................................................. 402 11.3.7.1 Float Control........................................................................................................ 403 11.3.7.2 Pneumatic Controls............................................................................................. 403 11.3.7.3 Electrode Control Systems..................................................................................404 11.3.7.4 Other Control Systems........................................................................................404 11.3.8 Electronic Control Systems.......................................................................................................404 11.3.8.1 Flow Equalization System...................................................................................404 11.3.8.2 Sonar or Other Transmission Type Controllers...................................................404 11.3.8.3 Motor Controllers................................................................................................ 405 11.3.8.4 Protective Instrumentation .................................................................................. 405 11.3.8.5 Temperature Detectors........................................................................................ 405 11.3.8.6 Vibration Monitors.............................................................................................. 405 11.3.8.7 Supervisory Instrumentation............................................................................... 405 11.3.9 Centrifugal Pump Modifications............................................................................................... 405 11.3.9.1 Submersible Pumps.............................................................................................406 11.3.9.2 Recessed Impeller or Vortex Pumps...................................................................406 11.3.9.3 Turbine Pumps .................................................................................................... 407 xx Contents 11.4 Positive-Displacement Pumps.................................................................................................................. 407 11.4.1 Piston Pump or Reciprocating Pump ........................................................................................ 407 11.4.2 Diaphragm Pump ...................................................................................................................... 407 11.4.3 Peristaltic Pumps....................................................................................................................... 408 11.5 Chapter Review Questions ....................................................................................................................... 408 References and Recommended Reading ............................................................................................................. 408 Chapter 12 Water/Wastewater Conveyance ............................................................................................................................411 12.1 Delivering the Lifeblood of Civilization ...................................................................................................411 12.2 Conveyance Systems .................................................................................................................................411 12.3 Definitions.................................................................................................................................................412 12.4 Fluids vs. Liquids ......................................................................................................................................414 12.5 Maintaining Fluid Flow in Piping Systems...............................................................................................414 12.5.1 Scaling........................................................................................................................................414 12.5.2 Piping System Maintenance.......................................................................................................415 12.6 Piping System Accessories........................................................................................................................415 12.7 Piping System Temperature Effects and Insulation ..................................................................................416 12.8 Metallic Piping ..........................................................................................................................................416 12.8.1 Piping Materials.........................................................................................................................416 12.8.2 Piping: The Basics......................................................................................................................416 12.8.3 Pipe Sizes ...................................................................................................................................417 12.8.3.1 Pipe Wall Thickness.............................................................................................417 12.8.3.2 Piping Classification.............................................................................................417 12.8.4 Types of Piping Systems ............................................................................................................418 12.8.4.1 Code for Identification of Pipelines......................................................................418 12.8.5 Metallic Piping Materials...........................................................................................................418 12.8.6 Characteristics of Metallic Materials.........................................................................................419 12.8.6.1 Cast Iron Pipe...................................................................................................... 420 12.8.6.2 Ductile Iron Pipe ................................................................................................. 420 12.8.6.3 Steel Pipe............................................................................................................. 420 12.8.7 Maintenance Characteristics of Metallic Piping....................................................................... 420 12.8.7.1 Expansion and Flexibility.................................................................................... 420 12.8.7.2 Pipe Support Systems.......................................................................................... 420 12.8.7.3 Valve Selection.................................................................................................... 420 12.8.7.4 Isolation............................................................................................................... 420 12.8.7.5 Preventing Backflow ........................................................................................... 420 12.8.7.6 Water Hammer.................................................................................................... 421 12.8.7.7 Air Binding.......................................................................................................... 421 12.8.7.8 Corrosion Effects................................................................................................. 421 12.8.8 Joining Metallic Pipe ................................................................................................................ 421 12.8.8.1 Bell-and-Spigot Joints......................................................................................... 422 12.8.8.2 Screwed or Threaded Joints................................................................................ 422 12.8.8.3 Flanged Joints...................................................................................................... 422 12.8.8.4 Welded Joints....................................................................................................... 423 12.8.8.5 Soldered and Brazed Joints................................................................................. 423 12.9 Nonmetallic Piping................................................................................................................................... 423 12.9.1 Nonmetallic Piping Materials................................................................................................... 423 12.9.1.1 Clay Pipe ............................................................................................................. 423 12.9.1.2 Concrete Pipe ...................................................................................................... 424 12.9.1.3 Plastic Pipe .......................................................................................................... 426 12.10 Tubing....................................................................................................................................................... 426 12.10.1 Tubing vs. Piping: The Difference ............................................................................................ 427 12.10.2 Advantages of Tubing................................................................................................................ 428 12.10.2.1 Mechanical Advantages of Tubing...................................................................... 428 12.10.2.2 Chemical Advantages of Tubing ......................................................................... 428 12.10.3 Connecting Tubing .................................................................................................................... 429 Contents xxi 12.10.3.1 Cutting Tubing..................................................................................................... 429 12.10.3.2 Soldering Tubing ................................................................................................. 429 12.10.3.3 Connecting Flared/Nonflared Joints................................................................... 429 12.10.4 Bending Tubing ......................................................................................................................... 430 12.10.5 Types of Tubing......................................................................................................................... 430 12.10.6 Typical Tubing Applications ......................................................................................................431 12.11 Industrial Hoses.........................................................................................................................................431 12.11.1 Hose Nomenclature ....................................................................................................................431 12.11.2 Factors Governing Hose Selection ............................................................................................ 432 12.11.3 Standards, Codes, and Sizes...................................................................................................... 433 12.11.3.1 Hose Size............................................................................................................. 433 12.11.3.2 Hose Classifications ............................................................................................ 433 12.11.3.3 Nonmetallic Hose................................................................................................ 433 12.11.3.4 Metallic Hose ...................................................................................................... 434 12.11.4 Hose Couplings ......................................................................................................................... 435 12.11.5 Hose Maintenance..................................................................................................................... 435 12.12 Pipe and Tube Fittings.............................................................................................................................. 435 12.12.1 Fittings....................................................................................................................................... 436 12.12.2 Functions of Fittings.................................................................................................................. 436 12.12.2.1 Changing the Direction of Flow.......................................................................... 436 12.12.2.2 Providing Branch Connections ........................................................................... 436 12.12.2.3 Changing the Sizes of Lines................................................................................ 436 12.12.2.4 Sealing Lines....................................................................................................... 436 12.12.2.5 Connecting Lines ................................................................................................ 437 12.12.3 Pipe Fittings and Connections................................................................................................... 437 12.12.3.1 Screwed Fittings.................................................................................................. 437 12.12.3.2 Flanged Connections........................................................................................... 437 12.12.3.3 Welded Connections............................................................................................ 437 12.12.4 Tubing Fittings and Connections............................................................................................... 437 12.13 Valves ....................................................................................................................................................... 438 12.13.1 Valve Construction.................................................................................................................... 439 12.13.2 Types of Valves ......................................................................................................................... 439 12.13.2.1 Ball Valves.............................................................................................................440 12.13.2.2 Gate Valves............................................................................................................440 12.13.2.3 Globe Valves..........................................................................................................440 12.13.2.4 Needle Valves........................................................................................................440 12.13.2.5 Butterfly Valves ..................................................................................................... 441 12.13.2.6 Plug Valves ............................................................................................................ 441 12.13.2.7 Check Valves ......................................................................................................... 441 12.13.2.8 Quick-Opening Valves........................................................................................... 441 12.13.2.9 Diaphragm Valves ................................................................................................. 441 12.13.2.10 Regulating Valves.................................................................................................. 441 12.13.2.11 Relief Valves.......................................................................................................... 442 12.13.2.12 Reducing Valves .................................................................................................... 442 12.13.3 Valve Operators......................................................................................................................... 442 12.13.3.1 Pneumatic and Hydraulic Valve Operators......................................................... 443 12.13.3.2 Magnetic Valve Operators................................................................................... 443 12.13.4 Valve Maintenance.................................................................................................................... 443 12.14 Piping System Protective Devices............................................................................................................ 443 12.14.1 Applications............................................................................................................................... 443 12.14.2 Strainers .................................................................................................................................... 443 12.14.3 Filters.........................................................................................................................................444 12.14.4 Traps..........................................................................................................................................444 12.14.4.1 Trap Maintenance and Testing ............................................................................ 445 12.15 Piping Ancillaries..................................................................................................................................... 445 12.15.1 Gauges as Indicators of System Performance ........................................................................... 445 12.15.2 Pressure Gauges........................................................................................................................446 xxii Contents 12.15.2.1 Spring-Operated Pressure Gauges ......................................................................446 12.15.2.2 Bourdon Tube Gauges.........................................................................................446 12.15.2.3 Bellows Gauge..................................................................................................... 447 12.15.2.4 Plunger Gauge ..................................................................................................... 447 12.15.3 Temperature Gauges.................................................................................................................. 447 12.15.4 Vacuum Breakers ...................................................................................................................... 448 12.15.5 Accumulators ............................................................................................................................ 448 12.15.6 Air Receivers............................................................................................................................. 448 12.15.7 Heat Exchangers........................................................................................................................ 449 Chapter Review Questions/Problems.................................................................................................................. 449 References and Recommended Reading ............................................................................................................. 450 Section III Characteristics of Water Chapter 13 Basic Water Chemistry........................................................................................................................................ 453 13.1 Chemistry Concepts and Definitions........................................................................................................ 453 13.1.1 Concepts.................................................................................................................................... 453 13.1.1.1 Miscible and Solubility ....................................................................................... 453 13.1.1.2 Suspension, Sediment, Particles, and Solids....................................................... 453 13.1.1.3 Emulsion.............................................................................................................. 453 13.1.1.4 Ion........................................................................................................................ 454 13.1.1.5 Mass Concentration............................................................................................. 454 13.1.2 Definitions................................................................................................................................. 454 13.2 Chemistry Fundamentals ......................................................................................................................... 455 13.2.1 Matter........................................................................................................................................ 455 13.2.2 Content of Matter: The Elements.............................................................................................. 455 13.2.3 Compound Substances .............................................................................................................. 457 13.3 Water Solutions......................................................................................................................................... 458 13.4 Water Constituents.................................................................................................................................... 458 13.4.1 Solids......................................................................................................................................... 459 13.4.2 Turbidity .................................................................................................................................... 459 13.4.3 Color.......................................................................................................................................... 459 13.4.4 Dissolved Oxygen...................................................................................................................... 459 13.4.5 Metals........................................................................................................................................ 460 13.4.6 Organic Matter.......................................................................................................................... 460 13.4.7 Inorganic Matter........................................................................................................................ 460 13.4.8 Acids.......................................................................................................................................... 460 13.4.9 Bases.......................................................................................................................................... 460 13.4.10 Salts........................................................................................................................................... 461 13.4.11 pH.............................................................................................................................................. 462 13.5 Common Water Measurements................................................................................................................ 462 13.5.1 Alkalinity .................................................................................................................................. 463 13.5.2 Water Temperature .................................................................................................................... 463 13.5.3 Specific Conductance ................................................................................................................ 463 13.5.4 Hardness.................................................................................................................................... 463 13.5.5 Odor Control (Wastewater Treatment)...................................................................................... 463 13.6 Water Treatment Chemicals.....................................................................................................................464 13.6.1 Disinfection ...............................................................................................................................464 13.6.2 Coagulation ...............................................................................................................................464 13.6.3 Taste and Odor Removal ...........................................................................................................464 13.6.4 Water Softening......................................................................................................................... 465 13.6.4.1 Chemical Precipitation........................................................................................ 465 13.6.4.2 Ion Exchange Softening ...................................................................................... 465 13.6.5 Recarbonation ........................................................................................................................... 465 13.6.6 Scale and Corrosion Control ..................................................................................................... 465 13.7 Chemical Drinking Water Parameters..................................................................................................... 466 Contents xxiii 13.7.1 Organics .................................................................................................................................... 466 13.7.2 Synthetic Organic Chemicals.................................................................................................... 467 13.7.3 Volatile Organic Compounds.................................................................................................... 467 13.7.4 Total Dissolved Solids............................................................................................................... 467 13.7.5 Fluorides.................................................................................................................................... 467 13.7.6 Heavy Metals............................................................................................................................. 467 13.7.7 Nutrients.................................................................................................................................... 468 Chapter Review Questions.................................................................................................................................. 469 References and Suggested Reading..................................................................................................................... 469 Chapter 14 Water Microbiology............................................................................................................................................. 471 14.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 471 14.2 Microbiology: What Is It? ........................................................................................................................ 471 14.3 Water/Wastewater Microorganisms ......................................................................................................... 472 14.4 Key Terms................................................................................................................................................. 472 14.5 Microorganism Classification and Differentiation................................................................................... 472 14.5.1 Classification ............................................................................................................................. 473 14.5.2 Differentiation ........................................................................................................................... 474 14.6 The Cell .................................................................................................................................................... 474 14.6.1 Structure of the Bacterial Cell .................................................................................................. 474 14.6.1.1 Capsules .............................................................................................................. 474 14.6.1.2 Flagella ................................................................................................................ 474 14.6.1.3 Cell Wall.............................................................................................................. 475 14.6.1.4 Plasma Membrane (Cytoplasmic Membrane)..................................................... 475 14.6.1.5 Cytoplasm............................................................................................................ 475 14.6.1.6 Mesosome............................................................................................................ 475 14.6.1.7 Nucleoid (Nuclear Body or Region).................................................................... 475 14.6.1.8 Ribosomes........................................................................................................... 475 14.6.1.9 Inclusions............................................................................................................. 475 14.7 Bacteria..................................................................................................................................................... 475 14.7.1 Bacterial Growth Factors.......................................................................................................... 476 14.7.2 Destruction of Bacteria ............................................................................................................. 476 14.7.3 Waterborne Bacteria.................................................................................................................. 476 14.8 Protozoa.................................................................................................................................................... 477 14.9 Microscopic Crustaceans ......................................................................................................................... 478 14.10 Viruses...................................................................................................................................................... 478 14.11 Algae......................................................................................................................................................... 479 14.12 Fungi......................................................................................................................................................... 479 14.13 Nematodes and Flatworms (Worms)........................................................................................................ 479 14.14 Water Treatment and Microbiological Processes..................................................................................... 480 14.14.1 Pathogenic Protozoa.................................................................................................................. 480 14.14.2 Giardia ...................................................................................................................................... 481 14.14.2.1 Giardiasis............................................................................................................. 481 14.14.3 Cryptosporidium ....................................................................................................................... 485 14.14.3.1 Basics of Cryptosporidium.................................................................................. 486 14.14.3.2 Cryptosporidiosis ................................................................................................ 487 14.14.4 Cyclospora ................................................................................................................................ 487 14.14.5 Helminths.................................................................................................................................. 488 14.15 Wastewater Treatment and Microbiological Processes............................................................................ 488 14.15.1 Aerobic Process......................................................................................................................... 488 14.15.2 Anaerobic Process..................................................................................................................... 488 14.15.3 Anoxic Process.......................................................................................................................... 489 14.15.4 Photosynthesis........................................................................................................................... 489 14.15.5 Growth Cycles........................................................................................................................... 489 14.15.6 Biogeochemical Cycles ............................................................................................................. 489 14.15.7 Carbon Cycle............................................................................................................................. 489 xxiv Contents 14.15.8 Nitrogen Cycle........................................................................................................................... 490 14.15.9 Sulfur Cycle............................................................................................................................... 491 14.15.10 Phosphorus Cycle ...................................................................................................................... 491 Chapter Review Questions.................................................................................................................................. 492 References and Suggested Reading..................................................................................................................... 492 Chapter 15 Water Ecology ..................................................................................................................................................... 495 15.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 495 15.2 What Is Ecology? ..................................................................................................................................... 495 15.3 Why Is Ecology Important? ..................................................................................................................... 496 15.4 Why Study Ecology? ................................................................................................................................ 497 15.4.1 Leaf Processing in Streams....................................................................................................... 497 15.5 History of Ecology ................................................................................................................................... 499 15.5.1 Example Ecosystem: Agrosystem Model.................................................................................. 500 15.5.1.1 Agroecosystem Characteristics........................................................................... 500 15.5.1.2 Ecosystem Pattern and Process........................................................................... 500 15.6 Levels of Organization ............................................................................................................................. 501 15.7 Ecosystems............................................................................................................................................... 501 15.8 Energy Flow in the Ecosystem................................................................................................................. 502 15.9 Food Chain Efficiency.............................................................................................................................. 503 15.10 Ecological Pyramids................................................................................................................................. 503 15.11 Productivity .............................................................................................................................................. 504 15.12 Population Ecology................................................................................................................................... 504 15.13 Stream Genesis and Structure .................................................................................................................. 507 15.13.1 Water Flow in a Stream............................................................................................................. 508 15.13.2 Stream Water Discharge............................................................................................................ 509 15.13.3 Transport of Material ................................................................................................................ 509 15.13.4 Characteristics of Stream Channels.......................................................................................... 509 15.13.5 Stream Profiles...........................................................................................................................510 15.13.6 Sinuosity.....................................................................................................................................510 15.13.7 Bars, Riffles, and Pools..............................................................................................................510 15.13.8 Flood Plain .................................................................................................................................510 15.13.9 Adaptations to Stream Current...................................................................................................513 15.13.10 Types of Adaptive Changes........................................................................................................513 15.13.11 Specific Adaptations...................................................................................................................513 15.14 Benthic Life ...............................................................................................................................................514 15.15 Benthic Plants and Animals......................................................................................................................514 15.16 Benthic Macroinvertebrates ......................................................................................................................514 15.16.1 Identification of Benthic Macroinvertebrates............................................................................ 515 15.16.2 Macroinvertebrates and the Food Web ......................................................................................516 15.16.3 Units of Organization.................................................................................................................516 15.17 Typical Benthic Macroinvertebrates in Running Waters..........................................................................516 15.17.1 Macroinvertebrate Glossary.......................................................................................................516 15.17.2 Insect Macroinvertebrates..........................................................................................................517 15.17.2.1 Mayflies (Order: Ephemeroptera).........................................................................517 15.17.2.2 Stoneflies (Order: Plecoptera)...............................................................................518 15.17.2.3 Caddisflies (Order: Trichoptera)...........................................................................518 15.17.2.4 True Flies (Order: Diptera)...................................................................................519 15.17.2.5 Beetles (Order: Coleoptera)................................................................................. 520 15.17.2.6 Water Strider (“Jesus Bugs”) Order: Hemiptera) ................................................ 521 15.17.2.7 Alderflies and Dobsonflies (Order: Megaloptera)............................................... 522 15.17.2.8 Dragonflies and Damselflies (Order: Odonata)................................................... 522 15.17.3 Non-Insect Macroinvertebrates................................................................................................. 523 15.17.3.1 Oligochaeta (Family Tubificidae, Genus Tubifex)............................................... 523 15.17.3.2 Hirudinea (Leeches)............................................................................................ 523 15.17.3.3 Gastropoda (Lung-Breathing Snail).................................................................... 523 Contents xxv 15.18 Summary of Key Terms........................................................................................................................... 524 Chapter Review Questions.................................................................................................................................. 524 References and Recommended Reading ............................................................................................................. 525 Chapter 16 Water Quality ...................................................................................................................................................... 527 16.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 527 16.2 Water Cycle .............................................................................................................................................. 528 16.3 Water Quality Standards .......................................................................................................................... 529 16.3.1 Clean Water Act ........................................................................................................................ 529 16.3.2 Safe Drinking Water Act........................................................................................................... 530 16.3.2.1 Implementing the Safe Drinking Water Act ....................................................... 530 16.4 Water Quality Characteristics of Water and Wastewater......................................................................... 533 16.4.1 Physical Characteristics of Water and Wastewater ................................................................... 533 16.4.1.1 Solids................................................................................................................... 533 16.4.1.2 Turbidity .............................................................................................................. 533 16.4.1.3 Color.................................................................................................................... 537 16.4.1.4 Taste and Odor .................................................................................................... 537 16.4.1.5 Temperature......................................................................................................... 538 16.4.2 Chemical Characteristics of Water............................................................................................ 539 16.4.2.1 Total Dissolved Solids......................................................................................... 539 16.4.2.2 Alkalinity ............................................................................................................ 539 16.4.2.3 Hardness.............................................................................................................. 540 16.4.2.4 Fluoride ............................................................................................................... 540 16.4.2.5 Metals.................................................................................................................. 540 16.4.2.6 Organics .............................................................................................................. 541 16.4.2.7 Nutrients.............................................................................................................. 541 16.4.3 Chemical Characteristics of Wastewater................................................................................... 542 16.4.3.1 Organic Substances............................................................................................. 542 16.4.3.2 Inorganic Substances........................................................................................... 543 16.4.4 Biological Characteristics of Water and Wastewater ................................................................ 544 16.4.4.1 Bacteria................................................................................................................ 544 16.4.4.2 Viruses................................................................................................................. 544 16.4.4.3 Protozoa............................................................................................................... 545 16.4.4.4 Worms (Helminths)............................................................................................. 545 Chapter Review Questions.................................................................................................................................. 545 References and Suggested Reading..................................................................................................................... 545 Chapter 17 Biomonitoring, Monitoring, Sampling, and Testing ........................................................................................... 547 17.1 What Is Biomonitoring? ........................................................................................................................... 547 17.1.1 Advantages of Using Periphyton............................................................................................... 547 17.1.2 Advantages of Using Fish.......................................................................................................... 547 17.1.3 Advantages of Using Macroinvertebrates................................................................................. 548 17.2 Periphyton Protocols ................................................................................................................................ 548 17.3 Fish Protocols........................................................................................................................................... 549 17.4 Macroinvertebrate Protocols .................................................................................................................... 549 17.4.1 Biotic Index ............................................................................................................................... 549 17.4.1.1 Metrics within the Benthic Macroinvertebrates.................................................. 550 17.5 Biological Sampling in Streams................................................................................................................551 17.5.1 Biological Sampling Planning....................................................................................................551 17.5.2 Sampling Stations...................................................................................................................... 552 17.5.3 Sampling Frequency and Notes................................................................................................. 553 17.5.4 Macroinvertebrate Sampling Equipment .................................................................................. 553 17.5.5 Macroinvertebrate Sampling in Rocky-Bottom Streams.......................................................... 553 17.5.5.1 Rocky-Bottom Habitat Assessment..................................................................... 555 17.5.6 Macroinvertebrate Sampling in Muddy-Bottom Streams......................................................... 557 17.5.6.1 Muddy-Bottom Stream Habitat Assessment ....................................................... 559 xxvi Contents 17.5.7 Post-Sampling Routine.............................................................................................................. 560 17.5.8 Sampling Devices...................................................................................................................... 560 17.5.8.1 Dissolved Oxygen and Temperature Monitor ..................................................... 560 17.5.8.2 Sampling Nets..................................................................................................... 561 17.5.8.3 Sediment Samplers (Dredges)............................................................................. 561 17.5.8.4 Plankton Sampler ................................................................................................ 562 17.5.8.5 Secchi Disk.......................................................................................................... 562 17.5.8.6 Miscellaneous Sampling Equipment................................................................... 562 17.5.9 Bottom Line on Biological Sampling........................................................................................ 563 17.6 Drinking Water Quality Monitoring ........................................................................................................ 563 17.6.1 Is the Water Good or Bad? ........................................................................................................ 563 17.6.2 State Water Quality Standards Programs ................................................................................. 564 17.6.3 Designing a Water Quality Monitoring Program...................................................................... 565 17.7 General Preparation and Sampling Considerations.................................................................................. 565 17.7.1 Cleaning Procedures................................................................................................................. 565 17.7.1.1 Method A: General Preparation of Sampling Containers................................... 565 17.7.1.2 Method B: Acid Wash Procedures...................................................................... 566 17.7.2 Sample Types ............................................................................................................................ 566 17.7.3 Collecting Samples from a Stream............................................................................................ 566 17.7.3.1 Whirl-Pak® Bags................................................................................................. 566 17.7.3.2 Screw-Cap Bottles............................................................................................... 566 17.7.4 Sample Preservation and Storage.............................................................................................. 567 17.7.5 Standardization of Methods...................................................................................................... 568 17.8 Test Methods for Drinking Water and Wastewater.................................................................................. 568 17.8.1 Titrimetric Methods.................................................................................................................. 568 17.8.2 Colorimetric Methods............................................................................................................... 568 17.8.3 Visual Methods ......................................................................................................................... 568 17.8.4 Electronic Methods ................................................................................................................... 568 17.8.5 Dissolved Oxygen Testing......................................................................................................... 568 17.8.5.1 Sampling and Equipment Considerations........................................................... 569 17.8.5.2 Winkler Method (Azide Modification)................................................................ 569 17.8.5.3 Meter and Probe .................................................................................................. 570 17.8.6 Biochemical Oxygen Demand Testing...................................................................................... 572 17.8.6.1 Sampling Considerations..................................................................................... 572 17.8.6.2 BOD Sampling, Analysis, and Testing................................................................ 572 17.8.6.3 BOD5 Calculation (Unseeded) ............................................................................ 573 17.8.6.4 BOD5 Calculation (Seeded)................................................................................. 573 17.8.7 Temperature Measurement........................................................................................................ 574 17.8.7.1 Sampling and Equipment Considerations........................................................... 574 17.8.8 Hardness Measurement............................................................................................................. 574 17.8.9 pH Measurement ....................................................................................................................... 575 17.8.9.1 Analytical and Equipment Considerations.......................................................... 575 17.8.9.2 pH Meters............................................................................................................ 575 17.8.9.3 pH “Pocket Pals” and Color Comparators .......................................................... 575 17.8.10 Turbidity Measurement ............................................................................................................. 575 17.8.10.1 Sampling and Equipment Considerations........................................................... 575 17.8.10.2 Using a Secchi Disk ............................................................................................ 576 17.8.10.3 Transparency Tube .............................................................................................. 576 17.8.11 Orthophosphate Measurement .................................................................................................. 576 17.8.11.1 Forms of Phosphorus........................................................................................... 577 17.8.11.2 Phosphorus Cycle ................................................................................................ 577 17.8.11.3 Testing Phosphorus.............................................................................................. 577 17.8.11.4 Sampling and Equipment Considerations........................................................... 577 17.8.11.5 Ascorbic Acid Method for Determining Orthophosphate .................................. 578 17.8.12 Nitrates Measurement ............................................................................................................... 578 17.8.12.1 Sampling and Equipment Considerations........................................................... 578 17.8.12.2 Cadmium Reduction Method .............................................................................. 578 Contents xxvii 17.8.12.3 Nitrate Electrode Method.................................................................................... 579 17.8.13 Solids Measurement .................................................................................................................. 579 17.8.13.1 Sampling and Equipment Considerations........................................................... 580 17.8.13.2 Total Suspended Solids ....................................................................................... 580 17.8.13.3 Volatile Suspended Solids Testing ...................................................................... 581 17.8.14 Conductivity Testing ................................................................................................................. 582 17.8.14.1 Sampling, Testing, and Equipment Considerations............................................. 582 17.8.15 Total Alkalinity......................................................................................................................... 583 17.8.15.1 Analytical and Equipment Considerations.......................................................... 583 17.8.16 Fecal Coliform Bacteria Testing ............................................................................................... 583 17.8.16.1 USEPA’s Total Coliform Rule ............................................................................. 584 17.8.16.2 Sampling and Equipment Considerations........................................................... 585 17.8.16.3 Fecal Coliform Bacteria Testing Methods.......................................................... 586 17.8.17 Apparent Color Testing and Analysis ....................................................................................... 590 17.8.18 Odor Analysis of Water............................................................................................................. 591 17.8.19 Chlorine Residual Testing and Analysis................................................................................... 592 17.8.19.1 DPD–Spectrophotometry.................................................................................... 592 17.8.19.2 DPD–FAS Titration............................................................................................. 593 17.8.19.3 Titrimetric–Amperometric Direct Titration........................................................ 593 17.8.20 Fluorides.................................................................................................................................... 593 Chapter Review Questions.................................................................................................................................. 594 References and Suggested Reading..................................................................................................................... 594 Section IV Water and Water Treatment Chapter 18 Potable Water Source .......................................................................................................................................... 599 18.1 Earth’s Blood ............................................................................................................................................ 599 18.2 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 599 18.2.1 Key Terms and Definitions........................................................................................................600 18.3 Hydrologic Cycle ......................................................................................................................................600 18.4 Sources of Water....................................................................................................................................... 601 18.5 Surface Water ........................................................................................................................................... 602 18.5.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Surface Water..................................................................... 602 18.5.2 Surface Water Hydrology.......................................................................................................... 602 18.5.3 Raw Water Storage .................................................................................................................... 602 18.5.4 Surface Water Intakes ............................................................................................................... 602 18.5.5 Surface Water Screens...............................................................................................................604 18.5.6 Surface Water Quality...............................................................................................................604 18.6 Groundwater.............................................................................................................................................604 18.6.1 Groundwater Quality................................................................................................................. 605 18.7 Groundwater under the Direct Influence of Surface Water ..................................................................... 605 18.8 Surface Water Quality/Treatment Requirements.....................................................................................606 18.8.1 Stage 1 D/DBP Rule..................................................................................................................606 18.8.2 Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule .................................................................... 607 18.8.3 Regulatory Deadlines................................................................................................................ 607 18.9 Public Water System Quality Requirements............................................................................................ 607 18.10 Well Systems ............................................................................................................................................ 607 18.10.1 Well Site Requirements............................................................................................................. 607 18.10.2 Type of Wells............................................................................................................................. 608 18.10.2.1 Shallow Wells...................................................................................................... 608 18.10.2.2 Deep Wells .......................................................................................................... 608 18.10.3 Components of a Well ............................................................................................................... 609 18.10.3.1 Well Casing ......................................................................................................... 609 18.10.3.2 Grout.................................................................................................................... 609 18.10.3.3 Well Pad .............................................................................................................. 609 xxviii Contents 18.10.3.4 Sanitary Seal ....................................................................................................... 609 18.10.3.5 Well Screen ..........................................................................................................610 18.10.3.6 Casing Vent ..........................................................................................................610 18.10.3.7 Drop Pipe .............................................................................................................610 18.10.3.8 Miscellaneous Well Components.........................................................................610 18.10.4 Well Evaluation ..........................................................................................................................610 18.10.5 Well Pumps ................................................................................................................................610 18.10.6 Routine Operation and Recordkeeping Requirements...............................................................610 18.10.7 Well Maintenance.......................................................................................................................611 18.10.7.1 Troubleshooting Well Problems...........................................................................611 18.10.8 Well Abandonment.....................................................................................................................612 Chapter Review Questions...................................................................................................................................612 References and Suggested Reading......................................................................................................................612 Chapter 19 Watershed Protection ...........................................................................................................................................613 19.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................................613 19.2 Current Issues in Water Management .......................................................................................................613 19.3 What Is a Watershed? ................................................................................................................................614 19.3.1 Water Quality Impacts ...............................................................................................................614 19.4 Watershed Protection and Regulations......................................................................................................614 19.5 A Watershed Protection Plan.....................................................................................................................614 19.6 Reservoir Management Practices..............................................................................................................615 19.7 Watershed Management Practices.............................................................................................................615 19.8 Eight Tools of Watershed Protection.........................................................................................................615 19.8.1 Tool 1—Land Use Planning.......................................................................................................615 19.8.2 Tool 2—Land Conservation.......................................................................................................616 19.8.3 Tool 3—Aquatic Buffers............................................................................................................617 19.8.4 Tool 4—Better Site Design ........................................................................................................617 19.8.5 Tool 5—Erosion and Sediment Control.....................................................................................617 19.8.6 Tool 6—Stormwater Management Practices .............................................................................617 19.8.7 Tool 7—Non-Stormwater Discharges........................................................................................618 19.8.7.1 Septic Systems......................................................................................................618 19.8.7.2 Sanitary Sewers....................................................................................................618 19.8.7.3 Other Non-Stormwater Discharges......................................................................618 19.8.8 Tool 8—Watershed Stewardship Programs ...............................................................................618 Chapter Review Questions...................................................................................................................................619 References and Recommended Reading ..............................................................................................................619 Chapter 20 Water Treatment Operations ............................................................................................................................... 621 20.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 621 20.2 Waterworks Operators.............................................................................................................................. 621 20.3 Purpose of Water Treatment..................................................................................................................... 622 20.4 Stages of Water Treatment........................................................................................................................ 622 20.5 Pretreatment ............................................................................................................................................. 623 20.5.1 Aeration..................................................................................................................................... 623 20.5.2 Screening................................................................................................................................... 623 20.5.3 Chemical Addition .................................................................................................................... 624 20.5.3.1 Chemical Solutions.............................................................................................. 624 20.5.3.2 Chemical Feeders................................................................................................ 625 20.5.3.3 Types of Chemical Feeders................................................................................. 625 20.5.3.4 Chemical Feeder Calibration .............................................................................. 625 20.5.3.5 Calibration Procedures........................................................................................ 626 20.5.3.6 Iron and Manganese Removal............................................................................. 627 20.5.3.7 Iron and Manganese Removal Techniques.......................................................... 627 20.5.3.8 Hardness Treatment............................................................................................. 628 Contents xxix 20.5.3.9 Corrosion............................................................................................................. 629 20.5.3.10 Corrosion Control................................................................................................ 630 20.6 Coagulation............................................................................................................................................... 631 20.7 Flocculation .............................................................................................................................................. 633 20.8 Sedimentation........................................................................................................................................... 634 20.9 Filtration ................................................................................................................................................... 634 20.9.1 Types of Filter Technologies ..................................................................................................... 635 20.9.1.1 Slow Sand Filters................................................................................................. 635 20.9.1.2 Rapid Sand Filters............................................................................................... 635 20.9.1.3 Pressure Filter Systems....................................................................................... 636 20.9.1.4 Diatomaceous Earth Filters................................................................................. 636 20.9.1.5 Direct Filtration................................................................................................... 637 20.9.1.6 Alternative Filters................................................................................................ 637 20.9.2 Common Filter Problems.......................................................................................................... 637 20.9.3 Filtration and Compliance with IESWTR Turbidity Requirements......................................... 637 20.9.3.1 IESWTR Regulatory Requirements.................................................................... 638 20.9.3.2 Reporting and Recordkeeping............................................................................. 639 20.9.3.3 Additional Compliance Issues.............................................................................640 20.9.3.4 Variances and Exemptions.................................................................................. 642 20.10 Disinfection .............................................................................................................................................. 642 20.10.1 A Sherlock Holmes Type at the Pump ......................................................................................644 20.10.1.1 Cholera ................................................................................................................644 20.10.1.2 Flashback to 1854 London ..................................................................................644 20.10.1.3 From Pump Handle Removal to Water Treatment (Disinfection)....................... 645 20.10.2 Need for Disinfection in Water Treatment................................................................................646 20.10.3 Pathogens of Primary Concern .................................................................................................646 20.10.4 Recent Waterborne Outbreaks .................................................................................................. 647 20.10.4.1 Escherichia coli................................................................................................... 647 20.10.4.2 Giardia lamblia................................................................................................... 647 20.10.4.3 Cryptosporidium ................................................................................................. 648 20.10.4.4 Legionella pneumophila ..................................................................................... 648 20.10.5 Mechanism of Pathogen Inactivation........................................................................................ 648 20.10.6 Other Uses of Disinfectants in Water Treatment ...................................................................... 648 20.10.6.1 Minimization of Disinfection Byproduct Formation .......................................... 649 20.10.6.2 Control of Nuisance Asiatic Clams and Zebra Mussels...................................... 649 20.10.6.3 Oxidation of Iron and Manganese....................................................................... 650 20.10.6.4 Prevention of Regrowth in the Distribution System and Maintenance of Biological Stability............................................................. 650 20.10.6.5 Removal of Taste and Odors through Chemical Oxidation ................................ 651 20.10.6.6 Improvement of Coagulation and Filtration Efficiency....................................... 651 20.10.6.7 Prevention of Algal Growth in Sedimentation Basins and Filters...................... 651 20.10.6.8 Removal of Color ................................................................................................ 651 20.10.7 Types of DBPs and Disinfection Residuals............................................................................... 651 20.10.8 Disinfection Byproduct Formation............................................................................................ 652 20.10.8.1 Disinfection Byproduct Precursors..................................................................... 653 20.10.8.2 Impacts of pH on DBP Formation....................................................................... 653 20.10.8.3 Organic Oxidation Byproducts ........................................................................... 654 20.10.8.4 Inorganic Byproducts and Disinfectants............................................................. 654 20.10.9 DBP Control Strategies............................................................................................................. 654 20.10.9.1 Source Water Quality Control............................................................................. 654 20.10.9.2 DBP Precursor Removal...................................................................................... 654 20.10.10 Disinfection Strategy Selection................................................................................................. 655 20.10.11 CT Factor................................................................................................................................... 655 20.10.12 Disinfectant Residual Regulatory Requirements...................................................................... 656 20.10.13 Summary of Current National Disinfection Practices.............................................................. 656 20.10.14 Summary of Methods of Disinfection....................................................................................... 657 20.10.15 Chlorination............................................................................................................................... 657 xxx Contents 20.10.15.1 Chlorine Terminology......................................................................................... 657 20.10.15.2 Chlorine Chemistry............................................................................................. 658 20.10.15.3 Breakpoint Chlorination...................................................................................... 659 20.10.15.4 Breakpoint Chlorination Curve........................................................................... 659 20.10.15.5 Gas Chlorination ................................................................................................. 659 20.10.15.6 Hypochlorination................................................................................................. 660 20.10.15.7 Determining Chlorine Dosage ............................................................................ 661 20.10.15.8 Chlorine Generation............................................................................................ 663 20.10.15.9 Primary Uses and Points of Application of Chlorine ......................................... 663 20.10.15.10 Factors Affecting Chlorination ...........................................................................664 20.10.15.11 Measuring Chlorine Residual .............................................................................664 20.10.15.12 Pathogen Inactivation and Disinfection Efficacy ................................................664 20.10.15.13 Disinfection Byproducts...................................................................................... 665 20.10.15.14 Application Methods........................................................................................... 666 20.10.15.15 Safety and Handling Considerations................................................................... 667 20.10.15.16 Advantages and Disadvantages of Chlorine Use ................................................ 667 20.10.15.17 Chlorine Summary Table .................................................................................... 668 20.11 Arsenic Removal from Drinking Water................................................................................................... 668 20.11.1 Arsenic Exposure ...................................................................................................................... 668 20.11.2 Arsenic Removal Technologies................................................................................................. 669 20.11.2.1 Prescriptive Processes......................................................................................... 669 20.11.2.2 Adsorptive Processes........................................................................................... 670 20.11.2.3 Membrane Processes........................................................................................... 671 20.11.2.4 Alternative Technologies..................................................................................... 671 20.12 Who Is Ultimately Responsible for Drinking Water Quality?................................................................. 673 Chapter Review Questions.................................................................................................................................. 674 References and Suggested Reading..................................................................................................................... 676 Section V Wastewater and Wastewater Treatment Chapter 21 Wastewater Treatment Operations ...................................................................................................................... 681 21.1 Wastewater Operators............................................................................................................................... 681 21.1.1 Wastewater Treatment Process: The Model.............................................................................. 681 21.2 Wastewater Terminology and Definitions................................................................................................ 681 21.3 Measuring Plant Performance .................................................................................................................. 684 21.3.1 Plant Performance and Efficiency............................................................................................. 684 21.3.2 Unit Process Performance and Efficiency................................................................................. 685 21.3.3 Percent Volatile Matter Reduction in Sludge ............................................................................ 685 21.3.4 Hydraulic Detention Time......................................................................................................... 685 21.3.4.1 Hydraulic Detention Time in Days...................................................................... 685 21.3.4.2 Hydraulic Detention Time in Hours.................................................................... 685 21.3.4.3 Detention Time in Minutes ................................................................................. 685 21.4 Wastewater Sources and Characteristics.................................................................................................. 686 21.4.1 Wastewater Sources................................................................................................................... 686 21.4.1.1 Generation of Wastewater ................................................................................... 686 21.4.1.2 Classification of Wastewater ............................................................................... 686 21.4.2 Wastewater Characteristics ....................................................................................................... 687 21.4.2.1 Physical Characteristics ...................................................................................... 687 21.4.2.2 Chemical Characteristics .................................................................................... 687 21.4.2.3 Biological Characteristics and Processes............................................................ 688 21.5 Wastewater Collection Systems................................................................................................................ 688 21.5.1 Gravity Collection System ........................................................................................................ 688 21.5.2 Force Main Collection System.................................................................................................. 689 21.5.3 Vacuum System......................................................................................................................... 689 Contents xxxi 21.5.4 Pumping Stations ...................................................................................................................... 689 21.5.4.1 Wet Well/Dry Well Pumping Stations................................................................ 689 21.5.4.2 Wet Well Pumping Stations................................................................................. 689 21.5.4.3 Pneumatic Pumping Stations .............................................................................. 689 21.5.5 Pumping Station Wet Well Calculations................................................................................... 689 21.6 Preliminary Treatment ............................................................................................................................. 690 21.6.1 Screening................................................................................................................................... 690 21.6.1.1 Manually Cleaned Screens.................................................................................. 690 21.6.1.2 Mechanically Cleaned Screens........................................................................... 691 21.6.1.3 Screening Safety.................................................................................................. 691 21.6.1.4 Screening Removal Computations...................................................................... 691 21.6.2 Shredding .................................................................................................................................. 692 21.6.2.1 Comminution....................................................................................................... 692 21.6.2.2 Barminution......................................................................................................... 692 21.6.3 Grit Removal ............................................................................................................................. 692 21.6.3.1 Gravity/Velocity-Controlled Grit Removal......................................................... 692 21.6.3.2 Aeration............................................................................................................... 694 21.6.3.3 Cyclone Degritter ................................................................................................ 694 21.6.3.4 Grit Removal Calculations.................................................................................. 694 21.6.4.5 Preaeration........................................................................................................... 695 21.6.4.6 Chemical Addition .............................................................................................. 695 21.6.4.7 Equalization ........................................................................................................ 695 21.6.4 Preliminary Treatment Sampling and Testing .......................................................................... 695 21.6.5 Preliminary Treatment Process Control Calculations............................................................... 696 21.7 Primary Treatment (Sedimentation)......................................................................................................... 697 21.7.1 Process Description................................................................................................................... 697 21.7.2 Overview of Primary Treatment ............................................................................................... 697 21.7.3 Types of Sedimentation Tanks.................................................................................................. 698 21.7.3.1 Septic Tanks........................................................................................................ 698 21.7.3.2 Two-Story (Imhoff) Tank.................................................................................... 698 21.7.3.3 Plain Settling Tanks (Clarifiers).......................................................................... 698 21.7.4 Operator Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting .......................................................... 698 21.7.4.1 Primary Clarification Normal Operation............................................................ 698 21.7.4.2 Primary Clarification Operational Parameters (Normal Observations) ............. 699 21.7.5 Process Control Calculations .................................................................................................... 699 21.7.5.1 Percent Removal.................................................................................................. 699 21.7.5.2 Detention Time.................................................................................................... 699 21.7.5.3 Surface Loading Rate (Surface Settling Rate, Surface Overflow Rate) ............. 699 21.7.5.4 Weir Overflow Rate (Weir Loading Rate)........................................................... 700 21.7.5.5 Sludge Pumping .................................................................................................. 700 21.7.5.6 Percent Total Solids (%TS).................................................................................. 700 21.7.5.7 BOD and SS Removal......................................................................................... 700 21.7.6 Problem Analysis ...................................................................................................................... 701 21.7.6.1 Causal Factors for Poor Suspended Solids Removal (Primary Clarifier)........... 701 21.7.6.2 Causal Factors for Floating Sludge ..................................................................... 701 21.7.6.3 Causal Factors for Septic Wastewater or Sludge................................................. 701 21.7.6.4 Causal Factors for Too Low Primary Sludge Solids Concentration ................... 701 21.7.6.5 Causal Factors for Too High Primary Sludge Solids Concentrations................. 701 21.7.7 Effluent from Settling Tanks..................................................................................................... 701 21.8 Secondary Treatment................................................................................................................................ 701 21.8.1 Treatment Ponds........................................................................................................................ 702 21.8.1.1 Types of Ponds .................................................................................................... 703 21.8.1.2 Ponds Based on Location and Types of Wastes They Receive ........................... 703 21.8.1.3 Ponds Based on the Type of Processes Occurring Within.................................. 704 21.8.1.4 Pond Organisms.................................................................................................. 705 21.8.1.5 Biochemistry in a Pond ....................................................................................... 706 xxxii Contents 21.8.1.6 Physical Factors................................................................................................... 708 21.8.1.7 Pond Nutritional Requirements........................................................................... 709 21.8.1.8 Process Control Calculations for Stabilization Ponds..........................................710 21.8.1.9 Troubleshooting Wastewater Ponds......................................................................711 21.8.2 Trickling Filters..........................................................................................................................711 21.8.2.1 Trickling Filter Definitions...................................................................................711 21.8.2.2 Trickling Filter Equipment.................................................................................. 715 21.8.2.3 Filter Classifications............................................................................................ 715 21.8.2.4 Standard Operating Procedures...........................................................................716 21.8.2.5 General Process Description................................................................................716 21.8.2.6 Overview and Brief Summary of Trickling Filter Process..................................716 21.8.2.7 Operator Observations .........................................................................................717 21.8.2.8 Process Control Sampling and Testing ................................................................717 21.8.2.9 Troubleshooting Operational Problems................................................................718 21.8.2.10 Process Calculations............................................................................................ 720 21.8.3 Rotating Biological Contactors ................................................................................................. 722 21.8.3.1 RBC Equipment .................................................................................................. 722 21.8.3.2 RBC Operation.................................................................................................... 723 21.8.3.3 RBC Expected Performance ............................................................................... 723 21.8.3.4 Operator Observations ........................................................................................ 723 21.8.3.5 RBC Process Control Sampling and Testing ...................................................... 723 21.8.3.6 Troubleshooting Operational Problems............................................................... 723 21.8.3.7 RBC Process Control Calculations..................................................................... 724 21.9 Activated Sludge....................................................................................................................................... 725 21.9.1 Activated Sludge Terminology.................................................................................................. 726 21.9.2 Activated Sludge Process Equipment........................................................................................ 727 21.9.2.1 Aeration Tank...................................................................................................... 727 21.9.2.2 Aeration............................................................................................................... 727 21.9.2.3 Settling Tank ....................................................................................................... 727 21.9.2.4 Return Sludge...................................................................................................... 727 21.9.2.5 Waste Sludge ....................................................................................................... 728 21.9.3 Overview of Activated Sludge Process..................................................................................... 728 21.9.4 Factors Affecting Operation of the Activated Sludge Process.................................................. 728 21.9.5 Growth Curve............................................................................................................................ 728 21.9.6 Activated Sludge Formation...................................................................................................... 728 21.9.7 Activated Sludge Performance-Controlling Factors................................................................. 729 21.9.7.1 Aeration............................................................................................................... 729 21.9.7.2 Alkalinity ............................................................................................................ 729 21.9.7.3 Nutrients.............................................................................................................. 729 21.9.7.4 pH........................................................................................................................ 729 21.9.7.5 Temperature......................................................................................................... 729 21.9.7.6 Toxicity................................................................................................................ 729 21.9.7.7 Hydraulic Loading .............................................................................................. 729 21.9.7.8 Organic Loading ................................................................................................. 729 21.9.8 Activated Sludge Modifications ................................................................................................ 730 21.9.8.1 Extended Aeration Package Plants...................................................................... 730 21.9.8.2 Oxidation Ditches................................................................................................ 732 21.9.9 Activated Sludge Process Control Parameters.......................................................................... 737 21.9.9.1 Alkalinity ............................................................................................................ 737 21.9.9.2 Dissolved Oxygen................................................................................................ 737 21.9.9.3 pH........................................................................................................................ 737 21.9.9.4 Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids, Mixed Liquor Volatile Suspended Solids, and Mixed Liquor Total Suspended Solids........................... 737 21.9.9.5 Return Activated Sludge Rate and Concentration............................................... 737 21.9.9.6 Waste Activated Sludge Flow Rate ..................................................................... 737 21.9.9.7 Temperature......................................................................................................... 737 21.9.9.8 Sludge Blanket Depth.......................................................................................... 737 Contents xxxiii 21.9.10 Activated Sludge Operational Control Levels........................................................................... 738 21.9.10.1 Influent Characteristics ....................................................................................... 738 21.9.10.2 Industrial Contributions ...................................................................................... 738 21.9.10.3 Process Sidestreams............................................................................................ 738 21.9.10.4 Seasonal Variations............................................................................................. 738 21.9.10.5 Control Levels at Startup..................................................................................... 738 21.9.11 Visual Indicators for Influent or Aeration Tanks ...................................................................... 739 21.9.11.1 Turbulence ........................................................................................................... 739 21.9.11.2 Surface Foam and Scum...................................................................................... 739 21.9.11.3 Sludge Color and Odor........................................................................................ 739 21.9.11.4 Mixed Liquor Color............................................................................................. 739 21.9.12 Final Settling Tank (Clarifier) Observations............................................................................. 739 21.9.13 Process Control Sampling and Testing ..................................................................................... 739 21.9.13.1 Aeration Influent Sampling ................................................................................. 740 21.9.13.2 Aeration Tank...................................................................................................... 740 21.9.13.3 Interpretation........................................................................................................741 21.9.13.4 Settling Tank Influent.......................................................................................... 743 21.9.13.5 Settling Tank ....................................................................................................... 743 21.9.13.6 Settling Tank Effluent ......................................................................................... 744 21.9.13.7 Return Activated Sludge and Waste Activated Sludge........................................ 744 21.9.13.8 Process Control Adjustments.............................................................................. 744 21.9.13.9 Troubleshooting Operational Problems............................................................... 745 21.9.13.10 Process Control Calculations .............................................................................. 745 21.9.14 Solids Concentration in Secondary Clarifier ............................................................................ 752 21.9.15 Activated Sludge Process Recordkeeping Requirements.......................................................... 752 21.10 Disinfection of Wastewater....................................................................................................................... 752 21.10.1 Chlorine Disinfection................................................................................................................ 752 21.10.1.1 Chlorination Terminology................................................................................... 752 21.10.1.2 Wastewater Chlorination Facts.............................................................................753 21.10.1.3 Water Chlorination Process Description..............................................................753 21.10.1.4 Chlorination Equipment...................................................................................... 754 21.10.1.5 Chlorination Operation ....................................................................................... 754 21.10.1.6 Troubleshooting Operation Problems.................................................................. 754 21.10.1.7 Chlorination Environmental Hazards and Safety ............................................... 755 21.10.1.8 Chlorination Process Calculations...................................................................... 757 21.10.2 Ultraviolet Irradiation................................................................................................................ 759 21.10.2.1 Advantages.......................................................................................................... 760 21.10.2.2 Disadvantages...................................................................................................... 760 21.10.2.2 Applicability........................................................................................................ 760 21.10.2.3 Performance Examples........................................................................................ 760 21.10.2.4 Operation and Maintenance .................................................................................761 21.10.3 Ozonation .................................................................................................................................. 762 21.10.3.1 Advantages.......................................................................................................... 762 21.10.3.2 Disadvantages...................................................................................................... 762 21.10.3.2 Applicability........................................................................................................ 762 21.10.3.3 Performance Example: Indianapolis, Indiana..................................................... 762 21.10.3.4 Operation and Maintenance ................................................................................ 763 21.10.4 Bromine Chloride...................................................................................................................... 763 21.10.5 No Disinfection ......................................................................................................................... 763 21.11 Advanced Wastewater Treatment ............................................................................................................. 763 21.11.1 Chemical Treatment .................................................................................................................. 764 21.11.1.1 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting................................ 764 21.11.2 Microscreening.......................................................................................................................... 764 21.11.2.1 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting................................ 765 21.11.3 Filtration.................................................................................................................................... 765 21.11.3.1 Filtration Process Description............................................................................. 765 21.11.3.2 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting................................ 766 xxxiv Contents 21.11.4 Membrane Bioreactors.............................................................................................................. 766 21.11.4.1 Advantages.......................................................................................................... 767 21.11.4.2 Disadvantages...................................................................................................... 767 21.11.4.3 Applicability........................................................................................................ 767 21.11.4.4 Membrane Filtration............................................................................................ 767 21.11.4.5 Design Considerations......................................................................................... 767 21.11.4.6 Design Features................................................................................................... 768 21.11.5 Biological Nitrification.............................................................................................................. 769 21.11.5.1 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting................................ 770 21.11.6 Biological Denitrification.......................................................................................................... 770 21.11.6.1 Operational Observations, Operation, and Troubleshooting............................... 770 21.11.7 Carbon Adsorption.................................................................................................................... 774 21.11.7.1 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting................................ 774 21.11.8 Land Application....................................................................................................................... 774 21.11.8.1 Types and Modes of Land Application ............................................................... 774 21.11.8.2 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting................................ 776 21.11.9 Biological Nutrient Removal..................................................................................................... 776 21.11.9.1 Description .......................................................................................................... 776 21.11.9.2 Process................................................................................................................. 778 21.11.9.3 Performance ........................................................................................................ 780 21.11.9.4 Operation and Maintenance ................................................................................ 781 21.11.10 Enhanced Biological Nutrient Removal.................................................................................... 785 21.11.10.1 0.5-MGD Capacity Plant..................................................................................... 786 21.11.10.2 1.5-MGD Capacity Plant..................................................................................... 786 21.11.10.3 1.55-MGD Capacity Plant ................................................................................... 786 21.11.10.4 2-MGD Capacity Plant........................................................................................ 786 21.11.10.5 2.6-MGD Capacity Plant..................................................................................... 786 21.11.10.6 3-MGD Capacity Plant........................................................................................ 787 21.11.10.7 4.8-MGD Capacity Plant..................................................................................... 787 21.11.10.8 5-MGD Capacity Plant........................................................................................ 787 21.11.10.9 24-MGD Capacity Plant...................................................................................... 787 21.11.10.10 39-MGD Capacity Plant...................................................................................... 787 21.11.10.11 42-MGD Capacity Plant...................................................................................... 787 21.11.10.12 54-MGD Capacity Plant...................................................................................... 788 21.11.10.13 67-MGD Capacity Plant ...................................................................................... 788 21.12 Solids (Sludge/Biosolids) Handling.......................................................................................................... 788 21.12.1 Background Information on Sludge .......................................................................................... 788 21.12.2 Sources of Sludge ...................................................................................................................... 788 21.12.3 Sludge Characteristics............................................................................................................... 789 21.12.3.1 Sludge Pathogens and Vector Attraction............................................................. 790 21.12.4 Sludge Pumping Calculations ................................................................................................... 791 21.12.4.1 Estimating Daily Sludge Production................................................................... 791 21.12.4.2 Sludge Pumping Time ......................................................................................... 791 21.12.4.3 Gallons Sludge Pumped per Day ........................................................................ 791 21.12.4.4 Pounds Sludge Pumped per Day ......................................................................... 792 21.12.4.5 Pounds Solids Pumped per Day .......................................................................... 792 21.12.4.6 Pounds Volatile Matter (VM) Pumped per Day ................................................. 792 21.12.4.7 Sludge Production in Pounds per Million Gallons.............................................. 792 21.12.4.8 Sludge Production in Wet Tons per Year............................................................. 792 21.12.5 Sludge Thickening..................................................................................................................... 793 21.12.5.1 Gravity Thickening ............................................................................................. 793 21.12.5.2 Flotation Thickening ........................................................................................... 793 21.12.5.3 Solids Concentrators ........................................................................................... 794 21.12.5.4 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting................................ 794 21.12.5.5 Process Calculations (Gravity and Dissolved Air Flotation) .............................. 794 Contents xxxv 21.12.6 Sludge Stabilization................................................................................................................... 795 21.12.6.1 Aerobic Digestion................................................................................................ 796 21.12.6.2 Anaerobic Digestion............................................................................................ 797 21.12.6.3 Other Sludge Stabilization Processes..................................................................800 21.12.6.4 Stabilization Operation ....................................................................................... 808 21.12.6.5 Stabilization Performance Factors...................................................................... 813 21.12.6.6 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting.................................814 21.12.7 Rotary Vacuum Filtration...........................................................................................................814 21.12.7.1 Types of Rotary Vacuum Filters.......................................................................... 815 21.12.7.2 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting................................ 815 21.12.7.3 Process Control Calculations .............................................................................. 815 21.12.8 Pressure Filtration ......................................................................................................................816 21.12.8.1 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting.................................817 21.12.8.2 Filter Press Process Control Calculations............................................................817 21.12.9 Centrifugation ............................................................................................................................818 21.12.9.1 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting.................................818 21.12.10 Sludge Incineration.....................................................................................................................819 21.12.10.1 Process Description..............................................................................................819 21.12.10.2 Incineration Processes......................................................................................... 820 21.12.10.3 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting................................ 820 21.12.11 Land Application of Biosolids................................................................................................... 820 21.12.11.1 Process Control Sampling and Testing ............................................................... 820 21.12.11.2 Process Control Calculations .............................................................................. 820 21.13 Permits, Records, and Reports................................................................................................................. 826 21.13.1 Definitions................................................................................................................................. 827 21.13.2 NPDES Permits......................................................................................................................... 827 21.13.2.1 Monitoring........................................................................................................... 827 21.13.2.2 Reporting............................................................................................................. 828 21.13.3 Sampling and Testing................................................................................................................ 828 21.13.3.1 Effluent Limitations ............................................................................................ 828 21.13.3.2 Compliance Schedules ........................................................................................ 828 21.13.3.3 Special Conditions............................................................................................... 828 21.13.3.4 Licensed Operator Requirements........................................................................ 828 21.13.3.5 Chlorination/Dechlorination Reporting.............................................................. 828 21.13.4 Reporting Calculations.............................................................................................................. 828 21.13.4.1 Average Monthly Concentration ......................................................................... 828 21.13.4.2 Average Weekly Concentration........................................................................... 829 21.13.4.3 Average Hourly Concentration............................................................................ 829 21.13.4.4 Daily Quantity (kg/day)....................................................................................... 829 21.13.4.5 Average Monthly Quantity.................................................................................. 829 21.13.4.6 Average Weekly Quantity ................................................................................... 829 21.13.4.7 Minimum Concentration..................................................................................... 829 21.13.4.8 Maximum Concentration .................................................................................... 829 21.13.4.9 Bacteriological Reporting ................................................................................... 829 Chapter Review Questions.................................................................................................................................. 829 References and Suggested Reading..................................................................................................................... 832 Appendix A. Answers to Chapter Review Questions/Problems......................................................................................... 835 Appendix B. Formulas............................................................................................................................................................ 851 

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